方舟子在2008年抄袭美国“反伪斗士”迈克尔·谢尔默

作者:亦明_
发表时间:
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方舟子在2008年抄袭美国“反伪斗士”迈克尔·谢尔默

——兼论“皮尔当骗局”得以“成功”的原因

 

Fang Zhouzi Plagiarized American “Pseudoscience Fighter” Michael Shermer in 2008: Also On the Reasons for the “Success” of the British Piltdown Fraud

 

 

亦明

 

 

据方舟子自己说,“在我上大学之前,早已把整个人生设计完毕,思想也已成熟。”【1】而根据我的研究,方舟子的人生设计不过就是“成名”这两个字而已。【2】确实,为了成名,方舟子从中学时代起就冒充“诗人”,并且把自己的整个大学时代都荒废在“枉抛心力做诗人”上面——只是在跑到美国之后,方舟子才意识到,虽然自己“当诗人的本事倒是不少”,但诗才没一分”。【3】也就是因为如此,方舟子又开始冒充“明史专家”,曾大模大样地以“文抄公”自居,通过“东抄西凑”在互联网上发表了五十多篇《大明小史》。【4】可惜的是,方舟子的“明史专家”生涯持续了还不到一年,就被《华夏文摘》的一篇文章给腰斩了。【5】也就是在穷途末路之际,方舟子开始了他人生中的第三次转型,即冒充“达尔文斗犬”,在互联网上为进化论辩护——这也是方舟子“反伪斗士”身份的最初来源。事实是,在“少侠下山”之际,吹捧“少侠”不遗余力的《书屋》杂志就曾把方舟子捧为“中国的赫胥黎,第二头‘达尔文的斗犬’”【6】而对阿谀奉承、胁肩谄媚向来翘首以待、求之若渴的方舟子,对这样的头衔受用得不得了,所以他才会屡次三番地把这样的文章弄进“新语丝新盗资料”。【7

 

问题是,方舟子对进化论到底有多少了解?最近发现的一起抄袭案,对这个问题给出了非常明确的回答。


  • 当前共有8条跟帖
  • 亦明_:七、附录:“大脑惟先”理论与“皮尔当人”骗局:前因与后果

    七、附录:“大脑惟先”理论与“皮尔当人”骗局:前因与后果

     

    按照古尔德和谢尔默的说法,在皮尔当人化石出土之际,英国社会和学术界正在流行所谓的“大脑惟先”理论,这也是皮尔当骗局被英国人轻易接受的主要原因之一。尽管这个说法流传颇广——所以它才会被网络文贼方舟子盗卖到中国——,但事实是,无论这个理论是否为史密斯出于迎合“皮尔当人”的目的而故意炮制,它在当时都算不上是“流行的理论”。大量事实证明,在十九世纪末、二十世纪初的英国和美国,关于人类进化到底是“大脑惟先”还是“直立惟先”,主流观点就是后者;并且,不论“大脑惟先”理论是否“流行”,它对于这个骗局的“成功”都没有起什么作用。

     

    1、人类进化理论之演化

     

    在今天,虽然达尔文与进化论近乎同义词,但最早提出生物进化论的人却是拉马克(Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, 1744-1829),他的《动物学哲学》(Philosophie Zoologique)一书比达尔文的《物种起源》早了整整半个世纪。1844年,也就是在《物种起源》出版之前15年,英国出版了一本畅销书,题为《自然创造史的遗迹》(Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation),其生物进化思想就是来自拉马克。【1】据达尔文自己说,英国十九世纪最著名的地质学家莱尔(Charles Lyell, 1797-1875)曾一再说他的进化论是对拉马克学说的“修订”【2】虽然达尔文的英国斗犬赫胥黎(Thomas Henry Huxley, 1825-1895)对拉马克颇为不屑,但他也不得不承认,达尔文的祖父是最早宣传拉马克学说之人。【3】而达尔文的德国斗犬海克尔(Ernst Haeckel, 1834-1919)则对拉马克推崇备至,不仅说他远比有“古生物学之父”之称的居维叶(Georges Cuvier, 1769-1832)伟大,而且还说他是进化论的真正奠基人。【4】这是海克尔对拉马克人类进化理论的总结:

     

    “拉马克试图通过猿类习性的改善,对其器官的利用及逐步发展,以及将由此而产生的变异传播给后代来解释人类的起源。他认为这些改善中最重要的是人的直立姿势,手脚的改变,言语能力的获得及其伴随着的大脑的发育。”【5】

     

    不言而喻,海克尔本人也坚信“直立惟先”理论——古尔德就说他是“直立惟先”的领军人物。【6】实际上,在达尔文开始研究人类进化问题之前,海克尔就已经指出了一条完整的人类进化路线:半猿(semi-apes)、类人猿(man-like apes)、类猿人(ape-like men)、人(men);而从类猿人到人的转化的关键一步就是“直立”。【7

     

    海克尔的著作影响非常大。据古尔德说,恩格斯的人类进化学说就是来自海克尔。【8】达尔文本人则说,如果海克尔的《自然创造史》一书早一点被译成英文的话,他本人可能就不会撰写《人类的由来》一书了。【9】最不可思议的是,在海克尔的“人类的故乡在亚洲”的学说指引下,荷兰解剖学家杜巴斯(Eugène Dubois, 1858-1940)真的辞去了他在阿姆斯特丹大学的教职,只身前往荷兰在亚洲的殖民地印度尼西亚,结果真的发现了著名的“爪哇人”。【10

     

    谈到人类的进化,自然离不开达尔文。但事实是,达尔文既不是最早提出人类进化问题之人,他也没有亲自参与在后来发生的相关争论。在1859年出版的《物种起源》一书中,达尔文根本就没有讨论人类的进化问题;而在12年后出版的《人类的由来》一书中,达尔文也没有就人类进化中的最关键问题给出明确的答案。不过,从他的部分言论中,我们仍旧可以看出他倾向于“直立惟先”:

     

    “当人的远祖变得愈来愈能直立,加上他们的手和臂变化得愈来愈适合于把握事物和其它目的,而他们的脚和腿又变化得更适合于支持体重和步履往来——的同时,数不清的在其它结构方面的改变也就成为必要。骨盆有必要放宽,脊柱有必要取得一种特殊的弯曲方式,头颅安装的位置有必要有所改动,所有这些变化,人终于都完成了。”【11】

     

    也就是根据这样的文字,英国科学史专家鲍勒总结说,达尔文似乎在假设,工具的频繁使用促进了智力的增长。【12】而根据耶鲁大学生物学家兰铎的总结,达尔文的人类进化顺序是:从树居变成陆居(terrestriality)、双足直立行走(bipedalism)、大脑发育完善(encephalization)、文明进步(civilization)。【13

     

    1914年,美国古生物学家奥斯本在加利福尼亚大学做了一个系列讲演,其内容在次年以《旧石器时代的人类》为题出版。在其中,奥斯本说了这样一段话:

     

    “关于人类的祖先是如何而来的讨论,主要涉及四类相互对立的结构演变观点:第一,采取直立的姿势;第二,对立拇指的形成;第三,大脑的成长;第四,语言能力的获得。关于直立姿势的观点是由拉马克首先提出的,并由蒙罗在1893年加以阐述,表明手和手指技能的培养是人类脑力至上的根源。艾略特·史密斯则认为,大脑本身的稳定增长和分化是引导人类祖先逐步前进的主要因素,而直立姿势之类的进步是由于大脑使熟练运动双手成为可能。”【14】

     

    奥斯本所说的蒙罗(Robert Munro, 1835-1920)是苏格兰著名考古学家,也是爱丁堡皇家学会会员、不列颠人类学会主席。1893年,蒙罗在不列颠科学协会63届年会上为人类学会做了一个主席讲演(Presidential Address),其题目就是《论人类直立姿势与身体及智力发展的关系》,其中所讲的主要内容就是直立对人类进化的直接与间接的促进作用。【15】四年后,因为“爪哇人”的发现,蒙罗在一篇文章中再次详细论述“直立行走”发生在大脑高度发育之前。【16

     

    同一年,在不列颠学会的年会上,爱丁堡大学解剖学家、不列颠人类学会主席特纳(William Turner, 1832-1916)在其主席讲演中,也一再强调直立姿势对于大脑发育及其功能发挥的作用;他甚至认为,一个动物如果不是直立的话,那么一颗高度发达的大脑对它几乎没有什么用处。【17】难怪古尔德会说,当杜巴斯在十九世纪九十年代研究爪哇人化石时,他坚信的理论就是人的直立行走先于大脑高度发育,而这个理论在当时是“已经流行的”。【18

     

    事实是,直到1920年,剑桥大学人类学家奎金(Alison Hingston Quiggin, 1874-1971)和哈登(Alfred Cort Haddon, 1855-1940)仍在一本书中说,“直立惟先”是当时“流行的观点”,而认为“大脑惟先”理论只有胚胎学证据。【19】这与史密斯本人在1916年抱怨自己的理论不受时人待见(见正文),可以说是互为印证。

     

    2、“大脑惟先”与皮尔当人

     

    如上所述,史密斯“大脑惟先”理论的出笼时机极为微妙:恰在皮尔当人出土之后、问世之前那个狭窄的间隙,因此它极可能是为了皮尔当人这个“怪物”的问世而特意炮制的。按照古尔德的说法,最早提出“大脑惟先”理论之人是德国胚胎学家贝尔(Karl Ernst von Baer),因为他在1828年曾说过这样的话:

     

    “直立姿势只是大脑高度发育的结果……人与其他动物之间的所有差异都取决于大脑的构造。”【20】

     

    古尔德没有提到的是,“大脑惟先”理论的变种、影响更大的“大脑决定论”,在十九世纪中叶就已经被驳得体无完肤了。原来,从1857年起,英国著名解剖学家欧文(Richard Owen,1804-1892)提出了这样一个主张:猿类和人类的主要区别就在于大脑的不同:人类的大脑不仅体积大,而且在结构上与猿类的大脑也有区别;例如,在人类大脑中,存在一个“海马小体”(hippocampus minor,又名calcar avis,禽距),而在猿类的大脑中,这个组织并不存在。在1860年到1862年间,赫胥黎与欧文展开了一系列论战,最终赫胥黎大获全胜。【21】而兰铎认为,史密斯在半个世纪后提出“大脑惟先”理论,就是在给欧文扬幡招魂。【22】兰铎还说,史密斯对大脑发育的重要性是如此看重,以致给人一种人类祖先只有脑袋而没有身体的印象。【23

     

    其实,不论史密斯提出这个理论的动机为何,也不论该理论在当时是否“流行”,它都对人们是否接受皮尔当人没有产生什么直接的影响。例如,1912年,也就是在史密斯提出“大脑惟先”理论之前几个月,蒙罗出版了自己在爱丁堡大学的讲义,其中继续介绍自己包括“直立惟先”在内的“有机进化”理论。【24】显然是把他视为绊脚石,史密斯在几个月后会大声质问蒙罗:如果直立的姿势能够解释一切,为什么长臂猿没有在中新世发展成人类?【25】事实是,当皮尔当人问世之后,蒙罗几乎是毫无保留地接受了它【26】,但没有任何迹象表明,他对“直立惟先”的信念发生了动摇。

     

    与蒙罗相似,剑桥大学人类学教授哈登也信奉“直立惟先”理论,因为他曾说过这样的话:“因此,人类的两个非常有特色的性状,直立的姿势和手,影响了头骨(的发展)”【27】但皮尔当人问世后,他马上将之称为“最重要的发现”、“与‘丢失的环节’最为接近”。【28

     

    与蒙罗和哈登一样,牛津大学地质与古生物学教授、皇家学会会员威廉·梭雷斯 William Johnson Sollas, 1849-1936)也信奉“直立惟先”观点。1910年,在英国地质学会的“主席年度演讲”中,梭雷斯明确地讲述了他关于人类进化过程的观点:

     

    “想象一下一种具有社会直觉的强壮的类人猿动物从平原的野兽手中抢夺食物,则通往人类进化之路就一目了然了。直立的姿势,灵巧的双手和增强的智力与拥有蛮力和野性格格不入。但是,一旦获得了这些特征,它们便有可能再次获得,而这又是极为重要的。有了顶端尖锐的棍棒和用它来刺杀的想法,我们就有了原始的矛。一旦被它所武装,对天然武器的需求就会消失。巨大的下颚和用于战斗的牙齿现在不再需要了,它们因此可以安全地退化发展以适应其单纯的饮食功能。”【29】

     

    显然,在当时的梭雷斯看来,人类进化的路线是:先是直立,然后是进入平原,再后就是大脑结构的变化。可是,到了1915年,上面这段话竟然被梭雷斯拿了出来,当成人们期待皮尔当人这个怪物出现的证据。【30

     

    其实,即使是在“皮尔当集团”之内,信奉“直立惟先”的人也不占少数。这是“皮尔当集团”主力纪斯在1911年说的话:

     

    “在人类大脑达到其现代尺寸之前,就已经获得了现代人的姿势。”【31

     

    这是他在1912年说的话:

     

    “因此,人的身体中有些特征是新的,有些不是那么新,有些是旧的,而另一些则更为陈旧。他的大脑看上去是最新的收获。他的脚、腿和步态则要陈旧一些,他的身材还要陈旧,而他的直立姿势则相当古老,可能起于中新世初期”【32

     

    难怪兰铎会以为,史密斯在1912年对蒙罗的质问,实际上是针对纪斯的。【33

     

    最奇的是纪斯在1915年说的这段话:

     

    “自从达尔文将他关于人类起源的理论传递给他的科学家伙伴以来,我们就期盼着与人类的祖先相遇。但据我所知,没有人曾预料到我们遇见的竟然会是由道森先生从皮尔当发现的这个惊人的混有猿与人特征的怪物”【34

     

    也就是说,在纪斯看来,当时根本就没有什么理论能够解释“皮尔当人”这个怪物。可是,为了证明这个怪物确实是真的,纪斯就把史密斯的理论搬了出来,说什么“他正确地预见到,在类人猿的特点从原始人的身上消失之前,大脑,即人体的主要器官,必须首先进入人的状态”【35】也就是说,纪斯相信皮尔当人化石为真在先,拿史密斯的理论当作根据在后。

     

    “皮尔当集团”中的另一位大牌科学家就是英国皇家学会会员、在1898-1907年间担任大英自然历史博物馆馆长的兰克斯特爵士(Sir Edwin Ray Lankester, 1847-1929),他也是首次把海克尔的《自然创造史》译成英文之人。这是他在1915年说的话:

     

    “我认为我们有理由将可以转动的大拇指和其他手指作为人类从其祖先的猿猴阶段崛起的开端。拥有拇指和食指的探索性的手是发展智力的重要工具,先是猴子,然后是人类”【36

     

    也就是因为如此,兰克斯特在讨论皮尔当人时,连史密斯的名字都没提。确实,在1915年出版的那本书中,兰克斯特对皮尔当人的表态本来就有些吞吞吐吐【37】;而当他看到美国人米勒的质疑文章之后,几乎立刻就缴械投降,承认颅骨与下颌骨的矿化程度不一样。【38

     

    3、曙石与曙人

     

    那么,上面提到的那几个不相信“大脑惟先”的人,到底是因为什么相信皮尔当人这样的怪物是人类的祖先呢?原来,在十九世纪末,一个与道森相似、名叫哈里森(Benjamin Harrison, 1837-1921)的 “业余考古学家”(正式职业是副食店老板)在英国发现了一类石头,它们貌似原始人类打造的“旧石器”。哈里森的发现,得到了英国著名地质学家、皇家学会会员普萊斯特維奇 Joseph Prestwich, 1812-1896)的认可【39】,它们也随之被称为“曙石”(eolithsdawn stones)。1902,大英自然历史博物馆将“曙石”列入了自己的“石器时代的文物”展览,这相当于它得到了官方的认可。【40】而在当时,这家博物馆的馆长就是兰卡斯特,但真正的幕后推手却是该博物馆地质部主任伍德沃德。【41

     

    由于当时有人质疑曙石的真实性,即认为它们是天然的产品,而非人造的石器,于是一个名叫莫伊尔(J. Reid Moir, 1879-1944)、生活在英国东部小镇伊普斯威奇(Ipswich)的裁缝店小老板挺身而出,投身到考古事业中,并且成就斐然——他竟然因此在1937年被选为英国皇家学会的会员。【42】简言之,莫伊尔不仅发现了大量的上新世或中新世(Pliocene-Miocene)的曙石,他还发现了冰河期的现代人类骨架(Ipswich Man or Ipswich Skeleton)——这个发现,让纪斯相信,现代人类在上新世就已经出现。【43】也就是说,莫伊尔的这些发现,不仅为皮尔当人的出现铺平了道路,而且还把所谓的“皮尔当集团”的两大主力,即纪斯和兰卡斯特,都拉上了战车。据莫伊尔说,兰卡斯特在得知“曙人”消息之后,曾这样说道:这看上去就是那些制造了曙石的上新世人类!【44】从某种意义上说,力挺皮尔当人的三员大将:伍德沃德、纪斯、兰卡斯特,都是因为相信曙石而相信曙人的——据说道森本人也是曙石的爱好者。【45】这也是道森和伍德沃德那篇原始论文的标题一定要加上“在含有石器的砾石坑中”(in Flint-Bearing Gravel)这个状语的根本原因。

     

    除了上面提到的三个人之外,梭雷斯在最初并不相信曙石是石器。【46】但是,到了1915年,他的态度变得含含糊糊了。【47】进入二十年代,他几乎全信了。【48】虽然没有资料证明梭雷斯对皮尔当人的态度与他对曙石态度的变化有直接的关系,但从时间线上看,这种关系存在的可能要远大于不存在的可能。

     

    4、唯二信徒

     

    应该承认,在英国“皮尔当集团”中,确实有两个人将史密斯的理论奉为圭臬,他们就是伍德沃德和皮克拉夫特。而这两个人有两个共同的特点:第一,他们都不是正儿八经的人类学家或人类解剖学家;第二,他们都是在相信皮尔当人之后,拿史密斯的理论来为自己的信念辩护。

     

    前面提到,伍德沃德在与道森联名发表的那篇原始论文之前,曾特意邀请史密斯为那篇文章写了一篇附录,目的显然是要让这个“在人类大脑方面的最高权威”为自己站台,以证明自己根据头骨碎片构建的头颅模型之可靠。显然,在那之后,伍德沃德就变成了史密斯的信徒,曾在1913年说过“我们曾寻找一个长着发达的大脑却有着一张猿脸的生物,但迄今还没有获得真正的成功”这样的话。【49】事实是,伍德沃德的专业是鱼类学,他一生发表了六百多篇与鱼类化石有关的论文,而关于人类化石的论文,只有三十余篇。【50】实际上,伍德沃德对人类进化问题产生兴趣,就始于1912年;而就是因为对人类学所知不多,导致他在构建头颅模型时犯下了一个关键的错误,而这个错误,又导致了“皮尔当集团”的激烈争论甚至可以说是严重分裂【51】——纪斯在晚年说,他永远也忘记不了史密斯给他的那个愤怒一瞥。【52】在伍德沃德死后,纪斯就直言不讳地说,“他对人体没有专门的知识”。【53】也就是说,和纪斯一样,伍德沃德之所以接受史密斯的理论,是因为他需要这个理论来巩固“皮尔当人”的地位,而不是因为他相信了这个理论而接受皮尔当人这个怪物。

     

    确实,在那篇描述皮尔当人的原始论文中,道森和伍德沃德讨论的中心就是颅骨的超常厚度,以及其脑容量之小,只有1070毫升,只及现代人脑容量的三分之二。【54】也就是因为如此,参与了破获皮尔当骗局的牛津大学教授克拉克后来说,伍德沃德给出的颅骨模型显示出“小头症状并且有些像是猿猴”。【55】伍德沃德的数值后来被纪斯大幅修正,高达1500毫升。【56】伍德沃德最后接受的数值是1300毫升。【57】也就是因为如此,在1923年,出现了这样一段文字:

     

    “关于皮尔当人的最有争议的论题就是大脑的体积。它的脑袋是小的、不大不小的,还是大的?格雷戈里博士说:‘不幸的是,头骨的中部缺少了几个至关重要的头骨。’这使专家们的看法明显不同。如果将颅骨的各个部分紧密放置在一起,那么他的大脑会是一个很小的大脑,容量约为1,070立方厘米。如果这些相同的部分向上倾斜并移动得更远,则大脑的容量将与现代人的大脑容量一样大,接近1500立方厘米。艾略特·史密斯和其他人的修改后的估算结果是,大脑的容积略低于1300立方厘米”【58

     

    也就是说,伍德沃德在最初根本就不大可能信奉什么“大脑惟先”理论。

     

    前面提到,在当时的英国人中,吹捧皮尔当人和史密斯理论最卖力气之人就是皮克拉夫特,是他首先“科普”了史密斯的理论。但是,和伍德沃德一样,他也不是人类学家,而是一个鸟学家,他因为曾给兰克斯特爵士当助手而进入大英自然历史博物馆——没有资料显示他曾受过正规高等教育。【591913年以后,皮克拉夫特在《伦敦新闻画报》上发表了多篇文章为“皮尔当人化石”的真实性与合理性进行辩护;并且,他几乎每次都把史密斯当作权威搬出来为自己作证——看看这两段话:

     

    “在完成了修复颅骨的任务后,制作了一个脑腔模型,并将其提交给我们对人脑方面的最大权威艾略特·史密斯教授。他发现,尽管苏塞克斯人的大脑在许多方面与旧石器时代的人相似,但它是迄今为止发现的最原始、最像猿的人的大脑。”【60】

     

    “可能有人至今仍然怀疑这个头骨和下颌骨是否属于同一个人。但是,这个下颌骨显然是迄今发现的最原始的,它含有人类的牙齿,因此,与艾略特·史密斯教授关于大脑的裁决完全吻合;他说,尽管它是人类,但却是迄今所见的最低等的。”【61

     

    而在1912年之前,皮克拉夫特从未在文章中提到过史密斯。也就是说,和伍德沃德一样,他相信皮尔当人在先,信奉史密斯的理论在后。

     

    5、有限的影响力

     

    其实,尽管史密斯在1912年以后竭力宣传其“大脑惟先”理论,但其影响在当时相当有限,而它对于皮尔当人化石的接受与否,充其量只起了一点儿辅助作用。1915年,美国史密森尼学会(Smithsonian Institution)的哺乳动物专家格里特·史密斯·米勒(Gerrit Smith Miller Jr.,1869-1956)撰写了一篇长文,其核心内容就是论证皮尔当人化石中,那个下颌骨根本就不是人类的,而是黑猩猩的。【62】在这篇文章中,米勒将当时那些认为皮尔当化石中颅骨与下颌骨来自同一个人的理由进行了总结,它们主要来自三个方面:第一,古动物学;第二,地质学;第三,解剖学。也就是说,在当时,史密斯的理论根本就没能成为人们相信皮尔当人的理由或根据。

     

    到了1916年,一位叫莱恩(W. Courtney Lyne)的英国牙科医生——即前面提到的那位在1925年透露说,他九年前曾建议“皮尔当集团”对皮尔当人化石进行显微检测的那个人——对德日进发现的那颗犬齿进行了仔细的研究,认为它与那个下颌骨根本就不可能来自同一个动物。【63】而在两年前,史密斯曾在曼彻斯特文学与哲学学会上宣布,当时皮尔当争端的要点有五,其中有两个与下颌骨有关;而德日进的发现使下颌骨的重建问题不复存在,意即彻底解决。【64】也就是说,莱恩的研究,几乎将史密斯的胜利宣言一把撕碎。而伍德沃德在为自己辩护时,引用的理由之一就是,如果把这些化石碎片归于同一个个体,那就能够满足史密斯在1912年做出的“预测”。【65】但吊诡的是,史密斯本人在答辩之时,却绝口不提自己的“大脑惟先”理论——他实际上连大脑这个词都没提——,而是重复伍德沃德早前的“概率”理论,即三个来自不同年代的不同生物,死于相同地点的概率微乎其微。他的另一个理由则是地质学的:“把一个迄今未知的更新世时期的猿猴带入英格兰,会颠覆古生物学的理论。”【66 为什么史密斯在为皮尔当人辩护时,不敢提及自己的理论呢?因为莱恩在陈述自己的证据之时,已经用他的话把他的嘴堵了个严严实实。原来,两年前,在与纪斯的辩论中,史密斯曾这样说道:

     

    “科学的责任是严格检查它所采用的所有证据,而不是从那些经受不起最粗浅的检验的材料中进行漫无边际的推测”【67

     

    而事实是,支撑史密斯的“大脑惟先”理论的材料,确实“经受不起最粗浅的检验”。也就是因为如此,史密斯在1913年曾对伍德沃德抱怨说,他在爱尔兰非常吃力地让“报界人士”闭嘴;而他让对方闭嘴的理由,并非其“大脑惟先”理论,而是颅骨与下颌骨同在一个矿坑这样的“事实”。【68

     

    1917年,皮克拉夫特代表英国“皮尔当集团”出面对米勒两年前的文章进行反驳。在这篇长达八千余单词的文章中,皮克拉夫特可谓使出了浑身的解数——用美国著名古生物学家威廉··格雷戈里的话说,那篇文章使用的是“令人恶心的律师一般的恐吓战术”、“轻率、狂轰滥炸”【69】——,但他却对史密斯的理论一字不提【70】。好笑的是,在为皮克拉夫特站台时,史密斯也绝口不提自己的理论,反倒称赞皮克拉夫特提供的牙齿解剖学“材料”。【71】显然,对于这样的乖常举动,只有一个合理的解释:“皮尔当集团”当时根本就不认为那个理论拥有什么价值,否则的话,他们完全没有必要发掘那些在现在看来一钱不值的“材料”——直接说人类的祖先就应该长着一个黑猩猩的下巴骨不就一了百了了?!

     

    总而言之,当时英国学术界人士轻易接受“皮尔当人骗局”有很多原因,而出于相信“大脑惟先”理论而接受这个骗局之人,一个人都找不到;即使是出于相信皮尔当骗局而接受“大脑惟先”理论之人,满打满算,也不过纪斯、伍德沃德、皮克拉夫特这三个人而已——而在这三个人之中,后两个人几乎算不上是人类学家。

     

    其实,史密斯的理论不仅在英国没啥市场,在国际社会,它也没有什么听众。1915年,奧斯本在其名著《旧石器时代的人类》一书中,根据考古发现,近乎是指着史密斯的鼻子驳斥他的观点:

     

    “从尼安德特人的肢体比例看来,在地质时期上,直立与步行比我们以前想象的要早得多。拇指的灵活使用与人类高级智力的发展之间的密切关系一直持续至今开发儿童智力的最佳方法之一就是坚持不断地使用手,因为研究发现,手与大脑之间的互动可以促进智力的发育”【72

     

    也就是受其老师的影响,美国著名古生物学家威廉··格雷戈里在1923年这样评论皮尔当人:

     

    “虽然[皮尔当人]同时具有人与猿的特点出人意料,甚至可以说是前所未有的,但身体的直立姿势,双手从运动中解放出来,以及人类大脑的发育都无可争议地使皮尔当人在已知的活着的猿或化石猿中与众不同”【73

     

    几乎与格雷戈里说出上面这段话的同时,在广东大学任教的陈兼善对自己的学生这样说道:

     

    “直立步行是猿类进步到人类一个重大的关键,对于头骨底增大和脑底发育都有密切的关系。”【74】

     

    据文献介绍,陈兼善(1898-19881921年毕业于北京师范大学,1945年任台湾博物馆首任馆长。【75】据陈兼善在1934年说,《史前人类》是他十年前在广东大学的进化论讲义;而为了撰写相关内容,特别是关于从猿进化到人这一段,他参考了许多文献,尤其是日本人编著的人类学书籍。【76】显然,初出茅庐的陈兼善当时就是在介绍那个时候的主流学术界观点。实际上,陈氏在这本书中花了17页(pp.46-63)的篇幅详细介绍了皮尔当人(他译为“披耳德唐人”)化石,以及“关于披耳德唐人之种种讨论”,但他根本就没有提及“大脑惟先”理论,遑论它对那些争论有任何影响。

     

    其实,最具讽刺意味的是,连参与了皮尔当人发掘工作并且做出了“重大贡献”的法国耶稣会教士德日进(Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, 1881-1955)也不相信“大脑惟先”理论——这是他在其名著《人类现象》(Le Phénomène Humain)一书(作于1938-1940年间)中说的话:

     

    “确实,从有机的观点看,导致人化的整个变异归根结底可归结为有没有更好的脑。但如果没有同时发现并且全部实现一系列其他条件,脑的这种改进怎么会发生,又怎么发挥作用呢?……如果人的前身不是两只脚的生物,它的手就不会适时地解脱出来并且使颌摆脱抓握的功能,箝制颅骨的那块大筋肉就不会松弛。脑的增大得益于直立行走。”【77】

     

    6、“普遍接受”之骗局

     

    前面提到,在1921年前后,英、美两国的权威人士和权威刊物先后以不同的理由宣布关于皮尔当人的争端已经解决。但那其实只是他们在自说自话。据美国专门研究皮尔当人骗局的人类学家斯潘瑟(Frank Spencer, 1941-1999)后来说,尽管“皮尔当人II”对强化伍德沃德的立场有所帮助,但它远没有能够使科学界达成共识。【78】确实,不仅美国人米勒一直没有改变自己的看法【79】;连曾到英国亲眼观察过那些化石的捷克裔人类学家、美国国家博物馆体质人类学部主任赫德利希卡Aleš Hrdlička, 1869-1943)也不相信,说“在长时间观察下颌骨和颅骨之后,作者的强烈印象仍旧是,它们不大可能属于同一人,如果确实属于同一个人的话,则它完全是一个例外”【80

     

    1921年,法国著名古生物学家马塞林·蒲勒 Marcellin Boule, 1861-1942)的《人类化石》一书出版,在其中他明确表示,皮尔当人下颌骨来自黑猩猩。【81】实际上,早在1915年蒲勒就对英国人对皮尔当人的鉴定表示过“怀疑”【82】;而他的观点是那么的重要,连《自然》杂志都要对之做“笔记”【83】。有趣的是,德日进早在1913年就在私下说,蒲勒对英国人的“发现”一直怀有戒心。【84】也就是说,英国人的学术声誉和信誉在国际上有相当大的折扣。更有趣的是,据说蒲勒也认为大脑在人类进化过程中起决定性的作用。【85】也就是说,是否相信“大脑惟先”理论,与是否相信皮尔当人是否为真,既没有必然的联系,更不存在因果关系。

     

    除了美国人和法国人之外,意大利人类学家温琴佐·祖弗里达-鲁杰里(Vincenzo Giuffrida-Ruggeri, 1872-1921)【86法比奥·弗雷塞托(Fabio Frassetto, 1876-1953)【87】;德国人类学家古斯塔夫·施瓦尔贝(Gustav Albert Schwalbe, 1844-1916)【88】、解剖学家亨氏·弗里德里希斯(Heinz F. Friederichs)【89】、人类学家魏敦瑞(Franz Weidenreich, 1873-1948)【90】也不相信那个下颌骨与颅骨来自同一个生物。实际上,到了后来,魏敦瑞连皮尔当人的头骨的原始性都不相信了,认为它就是现代人的头骨。【91

    image.png

    魏敦瑞否定皮尔当人化石

    1934年出版的《中国古生物志丁种第七号》是德国古生物学家魏敦瑞的专著《中国猿人之下颚》,其中有对皮尔当人化石的分析,魏敦瑞的结论就是:“辟尔当猿人之下颚,必须在不论之列,因其所有形态上性质,均如猿类下颚;其最近之关系,为一女性猩猩之下颚。”【92】魏敦瑞的结论,对美国著名人类学家虎敦的影响很大,他在1946年出版的《起于猿类》(Up from the Apes)的第二版中,为皮尔当人辩护的调门较15年前的初版降低了至少一个八度。后来,据《纽约时报》报道,魏敦瑞曾这样教训英国佬:“在体积和形状方面,脑壳与下颌之间有严格的相关:前者越大,后者越小。这个规律在所有已知的类人猿和人科动物都被被遵守,只有皮尔当人与之对抗。”【93

     

    很可能是受魏敦瑞的影响,杨钟健在1933年也对皮尔当人化石做出了如下评论:

     

    “因头骨与下颚之性质不十分和谐,因此颇有人以此下颚不当与头骨连在一起,而当分为二种,争执纷起,难以决定,但究竟以尚为一种之说比较占势力。”【94】

     

    也就是因为对皮尔当人的怀疑根深蒂固,所以到了1951年,也就是在这个骗局被彻底揭露之前两年,杨钟健继续对“曙人”嗤之以鼻:

     

    “至于所谓曙人,实在是一个谜,连头骨与下颚的关系如何尚有问题;其材料更不能与北京人相比了。”【95】

     

    实际上,不仅中国人对皮尔当人疑心重重,连日本人也是如此。1935年,商务印书馆出版了张资平翻译的日本人鸟居龙藏的《化学人类学》一书,其中对皮尔当人化石的可信性提出诸多质疑,其结论就是:“关于辟尔唐人之材料至不完备,故欲作正确之解说,根本上实为至难之工作。”【96

     

    实际上,最早对皮尔当人提出质疑的科学家是英国伦敦大学解剖学教授戴维·沃特斯顿 David Waterston, 1871-1942),他在1913年就致信《自然》杂志,根据X射线检测的结果,断言其下颌骨来自黑猩猩;而将它与颅骨归之于一人,就像是把黑猩猩的脚与人的腿连在一起一样。【97】皮尔当人骗局暴露之后,《自然》杂志曾为自己表功说,他们在1913年就发表了沃特斯顿的来信;而在那篇类似社论的文章的结尾,《自然》写道:

     

    “在经过系统地比较了皮尔当化石的复制品与相应的人类和猿类的骨头之后,美国的米勒先生表达了类似的观点。”【98

     

    事实是,米勒对皮尔当人的质疑比沃特斯顿要详尽、持久得多,论影响,他们二人也不可同日而语。可是,《自然》杂志竟然连他的具体文献出处都不肯给出——其虚伪与狡诈本性简直就是跃然纸上。

     

    总而言之,对于中国人来说,“皮尔当人骗局”的最大意义就是让我们看清了方舟子这个“达尔文斗犬”:除了吠影吠声般地跟在洋人的屁股后面狂吠之外,他对于进化论根本就没有什么深入的了解,所以他才会被谢尔默误导。实际上,野鹤早就看出了方舟子的混子嘴脸,说他“懂得的也只不过是生物化学和进化论的一些皮毛,而根本不懂得生物学和进化论的精华和灵魂。”【99

     

    7、注释

     

    1Schwartz, J. S. 1990. Darwin, Wallace, and Huxley, and "Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation." Journal of the History of Biology 23(1):127-153.

     

    2“Lastly you refer repeatedly to my view as a modification of Lamarck’s doctrine of development and progression,”见:Darwin, C. The Correspondence of Charles Darwin. Vol. 11,1863. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999. p.222.

     

    3“Erasmus Darwin first promulgated Lamarck's fundamental conceptions,”见:Huxley, T. H. 1887. On The Reception of The 'Origin Of Species'. In: Darwin, F. (ed.) The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin. New York, NY: D. Appleton & Co., 1898. pp.533-558.

     

    4“far greater than Cuvier in the vastness of his speculations and his conception of Nature,” “Lamarck is the real founder of the theory of evolution.”见:Haeckel, E. The Evolution of Man: A Popular Scientific Study. Vol. I. Translated by Joseph McCabe. New York, NY: G. P. Putnam’ Sons, 1905. p.68, 69.

     

    5“Lamarck tried to explain the descent of man from the ape chiefly by advance in the habits of the ape, and by a progressive development and use of its organs and the transmission to posterity of the modifications thus produced. He considered the most important of these improvements to be man's erect attitude, the modification of the hands and feet, and the acquisition of speech and accompanying development of the brain.”见:Haeckel, E. The Evolution of Man: A Popular Scientific Study. Vol. I. Translated by Joseph McCabe. New York, NY: G. P. Putnam’ Sons, 1905. p.70.

     

    6“the champion of the upright posture during the nineteenth century was Darwin’s German bulldog Ernst Haeckel.”见:Gould, S. J. 1975. Posture Maketh the Man. Natural History 84(9):38-40, 44.

     

    7】“They originated out of the Man-like Apes, or Anthropoides, by becoming completely habituated to an upright walk, and by the corresponding stronger differentiation of both pairs of legs.”见:Haeckel, E. The History of Creation: Or the Development of the Earth and Its Inhabitants. Translated by E. R. Lankester. London, UK: Henry S. King & Co., 1876. p.293.(注:该书原本为德文,书名是Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte1868在柏林首次出版。)

     

    8Gould, S. J. 1975. Posture Maketh the Man. Natural History 84(9):38-40, 44.

     

    9“If this work had appeared before my essay had been written, I should probably never have completed it.”见:Darwin, C. The Descent of Man. New York, NY: D. Appleton and Company, 1871. pp.4-5.

     

    10Shipman, P. The Man who Found the Missing Link: Eugène Dubois and His Lifelong Quest to Prove Darwin Right. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster, 2001.

     

    11】见:达尔文著,潘光旦、胡寿文译:《人类的由来》,商务印书馆1983年版70页。这段话的英文原文是:“As the progenitors of man became more and more erect, with their hands and arms more and more modified for prehension and other purposes, with their feet and legs at the same time transformed for firm support and progression, endless other changes of structure would have become necessary. The pelvis would have to be broadened, the spine peculiarly curved, and the head fixed in an altered position, all which changes have been attained by man.”见:Charles Darwin, C. The Descent of Man. New York, NY: D. Appleton and Company, 1871. p.137.

     

    12“Darwin seems to assume that the increased use of tools would have encouraged the growth of intelligence.”见:Bowler, P. J. Theories of Human Evolution : A Century of Debate, 1844-1944. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986. p.158.

     

    13Landau, M. Narratives of Human Evolution. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993. p.6.注:美国著名学者爱德华·拉森(Edward J. Larson, 1953-)也持相同看法。见:Larson, E. J. Evolution: The Remarkable History of a Scientific Theory. New York, NY: Modern Library, 2004. p.98.

     

    14“Discussion as to how the ancestors of man were fashioned has chiefly dealt with the rival claims of four lines of structural evolution: first, the assumption of the erect attitude; second, the development of the opposable thumb; third, the growth of the brain; and fourth, the acquisition of the power of speech. The argument for the erect attitude suggested by Lamarck, and ably put by Munro in 1893, indicates that the cultivation of skill with, the hands and fingers lies at the root of man’s mental supremacy. Elliot Smith’s argument that the steady growth and specialization of the brain itself has been the chief factor in leading the ancestors of man step by step upward indicates that such an advance as the erect attitude was brought about because the brain had made possible the skilled movements of the hands.”见:Osborn, H. F. Men of the Old Stone Age: Their Environment, Life, and Art. New York, NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1915. pp.58-59.

     

    15“the direct and collateral advantages which the erect position has conferred on him.”见:Munro, R. 1893. Opening Address by Robert Munro, M. A., M. D., F. R. S. E., President of the Section. Nature 48(1247):503-508; Munro, R. On the Relation between the Erect Posture and the Physical and Intellectual Development of Man. Report of the 63rd Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science Held at Nottingham at September 1893. London, UK: John Murry, 1894. pp.885-895.

     

    16Munro, R. 1897. Abstract of Paper “On the Intermediary Links between Man and the Lower Animals.” Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 21:249-250; Munro, R. Prehistoric Problems: A Selection of Essays on the Evolution of Man and Other Controverted Problems in Anthropology and Archæology. London, UK: William Blackwood and Sons, 1897. pp.165-187.

     

    17“If we could imagine a fish, a reptile, or a quadruped to be provided with as highly developed a brain as man possesses, the horizontal attitude of these animals would effectually impede its full and proper use, so that it would be of but little advantage to them.”见:Turner, W. 1897. An Address on Some Distinctive Characters of Human Structure. British Medical Journal 2(1912):450–453; Turner, W. 1897. Some Distinctive Characters of Human Structure. Scientific American Supplement 44(1135):18148–18149.

     

    18“in short, an excellent missing link on the theory, already popular in Dubois's time and now well established, that upright posture preceded, and may have triggered, the enlargement of the human brain.”见:Gould, S. J. 1990. Men of the Thirty-third Division. Natural History 90(4):12-24.

     

    19“the popular view,”“The conjunction of pre-human braincase with human thighbone appeared to favour the popular view that the erect attitude was the earlier, but the evidence of embryology suggests a reverse order.”见:Keane, A. H. Man: Past And Present. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1920. p.3. 注:此书初版时间是1900年,其中没有上引文字;该书作者基恩(Augustus Henry Keane)在 1912年去世。该书1920年版经过奎金和哈登修订(Revised and largely re-written)。

     

    20“Karl Ernst von Baer, the greatest embryologist of the nineteenth century (and second only to Darwin in my personal pantheon of scientific heroes) wrote in 1828: “Upright posture is only the consequence of the higher development of the brain…all differences between men and other animals depend upon construction of the brain.” 见:Gould, S. J. 1979. Piltdown Revisited. Natural History 88(3):86-97.

     

    21Gross, C. G. 1993. Hippocampus Minor and Man's Place in Nature: A Case Study in the Social Construction of Neuroanatomy. Hippocampus 3(4):403–416; Wilson, L. G. 1996. The Gorilla and the Question of Human Origins: The Brain Controversy. Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 51(2):184-207.

     

    22“Elliot Smith's aim is to rehabilitate the view, thrown into disrepute by the Owen-Huxley debate, that the brain is the primary factor in human evolution.”见:Landau, M. Narratives of Human Evolution. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993. p.107.

     

    23“Elliot Smith, on the other hand, emphasizes the development of the brain to such an extent that he almost gives the impression that our ancestors had heads but not bodies.”出处同上,p.7.

     

    24Munro, R. Palaeolithic Man and Terramara Settlements in Europe. New York, NY: Macmillan Co. 1912.

     

    25“If the erect attitude is to explain all, why did not the gibbon become a man in Miocene times?”见:Smith, G. E. Presidential Address. Report of the 82nd Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Dundee, 1912, September 4-11. London, UK: John Murray, 1913. pp.575-598.

     

    26Munro, R. Prehistoric Britain. London, UK: Williams and Norgate, 1913. pp.52-55, 68-74.

     

    27“Thus two very characieristic human traits, the erect posture and the hand, have influenced the skull.”见: Haddon, A. C. The Study of Man.  London, UK: John Murray, 1898. p.60.

     

    28“a discovery of the greatest importance,”“It is the nearest approach we have yet reached to a ‘missing link,’”见:Haddon, A.C. 1913, Eoanthropus Dawsoni, Science 37 (942):91–92.

     

    29“Given a strong ape-like animal with social instincts wresting his sustenance from the wild beasts of the plains, and the evolutional path to Man lies open. The erect attitude, the dexterous hand, and the enhanced intelligence are not inconsistent with the possession of brute force and brutal characters; but, once acquired, they render possible another acquisition and this of tremendous import. A pointed stick and the notion of using it to thrust, and we have the primitive spear. Once armed with this the necessity for natural weapons vanishes. The massive jaws and fighting teeth can now be dispensed with, and may safely undergo a regressive development with adaptation to purely alimentary functions.”见:Sollas, W. 1910. The Anniversary Address of the President. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 66(262):xlviii-lxxxviii.

     

    30“It had, indeed, been long previously anticipated as an almost necessary stage in the course of human development.”见:Sollas, W. J. Ancient Hunters and Their Modern Representatives. London: MacMillan, 1915. pp.54-55.

     

    31“The modern human posture was attained long before the human brain reached its modern size.”见:Keith, A. Ancient Types of Man. London: Harper & Brothers, 1911. p.135.

     

    32“Thus, in the body of man there are certain features which are new, some not so new, some old and others older still. His large brain appears to be his latest acquisition; his foot, leg, and plantigrade gait is older, his size of body older still, and his erect posture quite an ancient character-one which probably dates from the beginning of the Miocene period.”见:Keith, A. The Human Body. London: Williams and Norgate, 1912. p.78.

     

    33】“He confronts the alternative view, held by Keith among others, that bipedalism led the way in human evolution.”见:Landau, M. Narratives of Human Evolution. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993. p.107.

     

    34“Ever since Darwin impressed the truth of his theory of man's origin on his fellow scientists, we have expected to encounter man's progenitors, but no one, as far as I know, ever anticipated the discovery of one showing the remarkable mixture of simian and human characters such a one as Mr. Dawson brought to light at Piltdown.”见:Keith, A. The Antiquity of Man. London: Williams and Norgate, 1915. p.336.

     

    35】“He rightly foresaw that before the anthropoid characters would disappear from the body of primal man, the brain, the master organ of the human body, must first have come into its human estate.”见:Keith, A. The Antiquity of Man. London: Williams and Norgate, 1915. p.434.注:纪斯(Arthur Keith, 1866-1955)当时除了担任英国皇家外科医师学会 The Royal College of Surgeons of England)博物馆的馆长(Conservator)之外,1913年还成为英国皇家学会会员,并且担任皇家人类学会的主席,1921年被封爵,其地位相当显赫。(见:Clark, W. E. Le Gros. 1955. Sir Arthur Keith, F.R.S.. Nature 175(4448):192-193.)所以古尔德说他与伍德沃德和史密斯是英国人类学及古生物学的三个领军人物(the three leading lights of British anthropology and paleontology)(见:Gould, S. J. 1979. Piltdown Revisited. Natural History 88(3):86-97);也有人说这三个人是当时英国古生物学或人类学的三巨头(triumvirate)之一(见:Reader, J. Missing Links: The Hunt for Earliest Man. Boston, MA: Little, Brown & Company, 1981. p.54)。

     

    36“I think we are justified in taking the large opposable thumb and fingers as the starting-point in man's emergence from the ape stage of his ancestry. The exploring hand, with its thumb and forefinger, is the great instrument by which the intelligence, first of the monkey and then of man, has been developed.”见:Lankester, E. R. From Ape to Man. In: Diversions of a Naturalist. Methuen & Co. Ltd., 1915. pp.236-244.

     

    37Lankester, E. R. Diversions of a Naturalist. London: The Macmillian Company, 1915. p.284, 291.

     

    38Lankester, E. R. Letter to G. S. Miller. Dec. 27, 1915. 见:Spencer, F. The Piltdown Papers, 1908-1955: The Correspondence and Other Documents Relating to the Piltdown Forgery. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1990. pp.135-136.

     

    39Prestwich J., 1889. On the Occurrence of Palaeolithic Flint Implements in Neighbourhood of Ightham, Kent. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society London, 45: 270-297.

     

    40British Museum. A Guide to the Antiquities of the Stone Age in the Department of British and Mediæval Antiquities. 1902. p.48.

     

    41Spencer F. 1988. Prologue to a Scientific Forgery: The British Eolithic Movement from Abbeville to Piltdown. In: Bones, Bodies, Behavior: Essays on Biological Anthropology. Ed. by Stocking G.W.  Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988. pp.84-116.

     

    42Burkitt, M. C. 1944. Mr. J. Reid Moir, F.R.S. Nature 153(3882):368-368.

     

    43Moir, J. R. and Keith, A. 1912.  An Account of the Discovery and Characters of a Human Skeleton Found Beneath a Stratum of Chalky Boulder Clay Near Ipswich. The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. 42(2):345-379; Keith, A. 1944. James Reid Moir. 1879-1944. Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society 4(13):733-745.

     

    44It seems quite possible that it is our Pliocene Man-the maker of rostro-carinate flints!见:Moir, J. R. Prehistoric archaeology and Sir Ray Lankester. Ipswich, UK: N. Adlard & Co., 1935. p.108.

     

    45Hammond, M. 1979 A Framework of Plausibility for an Anthropological Forgery: The Piltdown Case. Anthropology 3(1/2):47-58.

     

    46Sollas, W.J. Ancient Hunters: And Their Modern Representatives.1st ed., London: Macmillan, 1911. p.67.

     

    47Sollas W.J. Ancient Hunters: And Their Modern Representatives.2nd ed., London: Macmillan, 1915. pp.85-86.

     

    48Sollas, W. J. 1920. A Flaked Flint from the Red Crag. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society of East Anglia 3(2):261–267; Sollas, W.J. Ancient Hunters: And Their Modern Representatives. 3rd ed. London: Macmillan, 1924. pp.104-106.

     

    49“We have looked for creatures with an overgrown brain and ape-like face, but hitherto without real success.”见:Woodward, A. S. 1913. Missing links among Extinct Animals. Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science 83:783–787.

     

    50Reader, J. Missing Links: The Hunt for Earliest Man. Boston, MA: Little, Brown & Company, 1981. p.57.

     

    51Dean, C., De Groote, I., and Stringer, C. 2016. Arthur Smith Woodward and His Involvement in the Study of Human Evolution. Geological Society, London, Special Publications 430(1):321-335.

     

    52“I shall never forget the angry look he gave me.”见:Keith, A. An Autobiography. London: Watts, 1950. p.327.

     

    53“he had no special knowledge of the human body.”见:Keith, A. An Autobiography. London: Watts, 1950. p.323.

     

    54Dawson, C. and Woodward, A. S. 1913. On the Discovery of a Palæolithic Human Skull and Mandible in Flint-Bearing Gravel Overlying the Wealden (Hastings Beds) at Piltdown, Fletching (Sussex). Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society 69(273):117-144.

     

    55“microcephalic and somewhat simian.”见:Clark, W. E. Le Gros. 1955. Sir Arthur Keith, F.R.S.. Nature 175(4448):192–193.

     

    56Keith, A. 1915. The Piltdown Skull and Brain Cast. Nature 92(2294):197-199.

     

    57Woodward, A. S. A Guide to the Fossil Remains of Man in the Department of Geology and Palaeontology in the British Museum. 1915.

     

    58“The most controversial subject relating to the Piltdown Man is that concerning his brain size. Was it a small brain-case, intermediate, or even of a larger type? ‘Unfortunately, several pieces of the skull, of critical importance, are missing from the middle of the skull top,’ says Dr. Gregory. ‘This has made possible markedly different opinions of experts. If the pieces of the skull are placed close together the brain would be a very small one, estimated at about 1,070 cubic centimeters. If these same pieces are tilted upward and moved farther apart, the brain capacity would be as large as that of modern man, nearly 1,500 cubic centimeters . The revised estimates of Elliot Smith and others' place the brain size somewhat below 1,300 cubic centimeters.”见:Our earliest Ancestor——The Dawn Man: An authorized interview by Hugh Weir with Henry Fairfield Osborn and William King Gregory. McClure's Magazine 55(1):19-28.

     

    59Woodward, A. S. 1942. Mr. W. P. Pycraft. Nature 149(3786):575.

     

    60After the task of restoring the skull was completed, a cast was made of the brain-cavity, and this was submitted to Professor Elliot Smith, our greatest authority on the human brain. He finds that while the brain of the Sussex Man resembles in many particulars that of the men of the Palaeolithic Age, it is the most primitive and most ape-like human brain so far discovered.”见:Pycraft, W. P. 1913. Britain's Oldest Inhabitant. The Illustrated London News 142(3865):678.

     

    61“There may be some who still question whether this skull and jaw belong to the same individual. But the jaw is obviously of the lowest type yet found, containing human teeth, and thus absolutely agrees with Professor Elliot Smith's verdict in regard to the brain, which, he says, is, though human, of the lowest type yet seen.”见:Pycraft, W. P. 1913. Ape-Man or Modern Man? The Two Piltdown Skull Reconstructions. The Illustrated London News 143(3883):444.

     

    62Miller, G. S. 1915. The Jaw of the Piltdown Man. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 65(12):1-36.

     

    63“they could not be the property of one and the same individual.”  见:Lyne, W. C. 1916. The Significance of the Radiographs of the Piltdown Teeth. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 9(Odontological Section): 33–51.

     

    64“The reconstruction of the jaw and teeth has now been practically settled once for all by the subsequent discovery of the canine tooth.”见:Anonymous. 1913. Societies and Academies. Nature 92(2303):467-469.

     

    65“We must also remember that, if we put these remains together, we realize the prediction which was made, on other grounds, by Professor Elliot Smith at the Dundee meeting of the British Association just before the Piltdown discovery.” 见:Woodward, A. S. 1916. Discussion. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 9(Odontological Section):52-55.

     

    66“To bring a hitherto unknown ape into England in the Pleistocene period involves an upheaval of paleontological teaching.” 见:Smith, G. E. 1916. Discussion. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 9(Odontological Section):56-58.

     

    67"It is the business of science relentlessly to scrutinize all the evidence it uses, and not to build up vast speculations from material that will not stand the most elementary tests of stability."见:Smith, G. E. 1914. The Significance of the Discovery at Piltdown. Bedrock: A Quarterly Journal of Scientific Thought 3(1): 1-17.

     

    68“Elliot Smith goes on to note that he managed , with “much difficulty” to silence the “newspaper people;” “I told them (in Dublin ) that the Sussex man's brain was quite as extraordinary as his jaw and that it was quite inconceivable that two such remarkable individuals should have left their remains side by side in the same patch of gravel.”见:Spencer, F. The Piltdown Papers, 1908-1955: The Correspondence and Other Documents Relating to the Piltdown Forgery. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1990. p.66.

     

    69】“I am disgusted with the lawyer - like , hectoring tactics which he adopts,”“imprudent and bombastic.”出处同上,pp.145-147.

     

    70Pycraft, W. P. 1917. The Jaw of the Piltdown ManA Reply to Mr. Gerrit S. Miller. Science Progress 11(43):389-409.

     

    71Smith, G. E. 1917. The Problem of the Piltdown Jaw: Human or Subhuman? Eugenics Review 9(2):167.

     

    72“It appears from the limb proportions in the Neanderthal race that the partly erect attitude and walking gait were assumed much earlier in geologic time than we formerly imagined. The intimate relation between the use of the opposable thumb and the development of the higher mental faculties of man is sustained to-day by the discovery that one of the best methods of developing the mind of the child is to insist upon the constant use of the hands, for the action and reaction between hand and brain is found to develop the mind.”见:Osborn, H. F. Men of the Old Stone Age: Their Environment, Life and Art. New York, NY: C. Scribner's sons, 1915. pp.59-60.

     

    73“While this distribution of human and ape-like character was unexpected and in a way unprecedented, the erect pose of the body, the freeing of the hands from locomotive functions, and the human development of the brain set the Piltdown Man quite definitely apart from any of the known living or fossil apes.”见:Our earliest Ancestor——The Dawn Man: An authorized interview by Hugh Weir with Henry Fairfield Osborn and William King Gregory. McClure's Magazine 55(1):19-28.

     

    74】陈兼善:《史前人类》,中华书局1936年版30页。

     

    75】賴春福:《台灣動物學的啟蒙者——陳兼善》,《科學月刊》20002期;见曾耀寰主编:《教师没教的科学家》,台湾商务印书馆2012年版113-122页。

     

    76】陈兼善:《〈史前人类〉序言》,见中华书局1936年版《史前人类》。

     

    77】德日进:《人的现象》,译林出版社2014年版127-128页。注:这段译文的法文原文是:“Finalement, c’est vrai, toute la métamorphose hominisante se ramène, du point de vue organique, à une question de meilleur cerveau. Mais comment ce perfectionnement cérébral se fût-il produit, — comment eût-il pu fonctionner ? — si toute une série d’autres conditions ne se fussent trouvées en même temps, juste ensemble, réalisées ?... Si l’être dont l’Homme est issu n’avait pas été bipède, ses mains ne se seraient pas trouvées libres à temps pour décharger les mâchoires de leur fonction préhensile, et par suite l’épais bandeau de muscles maxillaires qui emprisonnait le crâne ne se serait pas relâché : C’est grâce à la bipédie libérant les p.188 mains que le cerveau a pu grossir ;”见:Teilhard de Chardin, P.  Le Phénomène Humain. Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1955. Pp.187-188.

     

    78“Although the announcement of Piltdown II did much to strengthen Woodward's position, it did not by any means lead to a scientific consensus”)。见:Spencer, F. The Piltdown Papers, 1908-1955: The Correspondence and Other Documents Relating to the Piltdown Forgery. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1990. p.151.

     

    79Miller, G. S., Jr. 1918. The Piltdown Jaw. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 1(1):25-52; Miller, G. S. Jr. 1928. The Controversy over Human “Missing Links.” Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1928, pp.413–465.

     

    80】“After prolonged handling of both the jaw and the skull there remained in the writer a strong impression that the two may not belong together, or that if they do the case is totally exceptional.”见:Hrdlička, A. 1922. The Piltdown Jaw. American Journal of Physical Anthropology  5(4):337-347。另见:Piltdown Papers, p.128, 181. 注:1923年以后,出于某种原因,赫德利希卡公开表示相信皮尔当人。见:Hrdlička, A. 1923. Dimensions of the First and Second Lower Molars with their Bearing on the Piltdown Jaw and on Man's Phylogeny. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 6(2):195-216.

     

    81“Lorsque nous discuterons les pièces fossiles trouvées à Piltdown (Angleterre ) et attribuées à un Homme de type tout à fait primitif, l'Eoanthropus, nous verrons qu'il y a lieu de faire une importante distinction ; la mâchoire de l'Eoanthropus n'est qu'une mâchoire de Chimpanzé, que j'ai proposé de nommer Troglodytes Dawsoni et qu'un zoologiste américain veut appeler Pan vetus.”见:Boule, M. Les Hommes Fossiles : Éléments de Paléontologie Humaine. Paris: Masson, 1921. p.89.

     

    82“Les documents de Piltdown sont malheureusement des documents incomplets. Leur interpretation est encoure douteuse sur des points essentiels. Ils constituent, malgré tout, une découvere des plus importantes et des plus instructives.”见:Boule, M. 1915. La Paléontologie humaine en Angleterre. L'Anthropologie 26:1–67.

     

    83Anonymous. 1915. Notes. Nature 95(2382):457-462.

     

    84“I am in the best position to have the opinion of Boule and Obermaier, who are not easily taken in, especially if the finds are English.”见:Teilhard de Chardin, P. Letter to F. Pelletier. Jan. 1, 1913.转引自:Schmitz - Moorman , K . 1981. The Stephen Jay Gould Hoax and the Piltdown Conspiracy . The Teilhard Review 16(3): 7-15.

     

    85“As might be expected, supporters of the monist interpretation of the Piltdown remains are seen to be advocates of the former viewpoint . The dualists on the other hand represent a high degree of theoretical heterogeneity . In some cases they are also seen to favour the notion of the pre-eminence of the brain in human evolution (e.g . Boule 1911-1913, 1921; Ramström 1921).”见:Spencer, F. The Piltdown Papers, 1908-1955: The Correspondence and Other Documents Relating to the Piltdown Forgery. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1990. p.153.

     

    86】出处同上, p.151.

     

    87】同上, p.189.

     

    88】同上,p.56.

     

    89】同上,p. 215.另见:Friederichs, H. F. 1932. Schädel und Unterkiefer von Piltdown (“Eaanthropus Dawsoni Woodward’’) in neuer Untersuchung. Nebst einem Vorwort von Franz Weidenreich, Ztschr. f. Anat. u. Entwcklngsgesch 98(1/2):199-262.

     

    90】魏敦瑞:《中国猿人之下颚》,《中国古生物志丁种》第七号第三册,1936年,1-163页;Weidenreich, F. 1936. The Mandibles of Sinanthropus pekinensis : A Comparative Study. Palaeontologia Sinica Series D, Vol. VII. 1-163; 魏敦瑞:《中国猿人之下颚——一个比较的研究》,《地质论评》19366712-716页。

     

    91“The torus region of the Piltdown Skull is, however, quite different. It resembles much more that of modern man as illustrated in Figure 10, the occipital torus being divided into a median and two lateral portions, these latter crescent-shaped, broad and rather flat but well demarcated from both occipital and nuchal plane.”见:Weidenreich, F. 1939. The Torus Occipitalis and Related Structures and Their Transformations in the Course of Human Evolution.《地质学报》19394479-559页。

     

    92】魏敦瑞著、杨钟健节录:《中国猿人之下颚——一个比较的研究》,《地质论评》19366712-716

     

    93“there was a strict correlation between the size and form of the brain case and the size and form of the jaws: the larger the former, the more reduced the latter. This rule holds good for all anthropoids and hominids so far as they are known today, The Piltdown Man alone would defy this law.”见:Anonymous. Experts Redfaced on Piltdown Hoax: German Paleontologists Said in ‘32 That Skull Was Modern and Jawbone an Ape's. New York Times, Nov. 23, 1953.

     

    94】杨钟健:《中国人类化石及新生代地质概论》,国立北京研究院地质学研究所、实业部地质调查所《地质专报乙种》1933549页。

     

    95】杨钟健:《周口店發掘工作的過去現在和未來》,《科学通报》19517693-686页。)

     

    96】鸟居龙藏著、张资平译:《化石人类学》,商务印书馆1935年版262页。

     

    97“it would be to articulate a chimpanzee foot with the bones of an essentially human thigh and leg.”见:Waterson, D. 1913. The Piltdown Mandible . Nature 92(2298):319.

     

    98“A similar view was expressed by Mr. G. Miller, jun., in the United States after systematic comparison of the casts of the Piltdown fossils with the corresponding bones of men and apes.”见:Anonymous. 1953. Piltdown Man. Nature 172(4387):981-982.

     

    99】野鹤:《关于方舟子现象的反思与断想(四):非此即彼的“科学小买卖”》,20021229日初稿,200349日改定,原定发表于《探索与争鸣》2003年第6期,因方舟子以起诉为由敲诈恫吓该期刊(见方舟子:《就野鹤诽谤一案答〈探索与争鸣〉编辑部》,新语丝2003624人新到资料),这篇文章后来在网上发表。

     


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  • 亦明_:六、注释

    六、注释

     

    1】方舟子:《我的经典》,《新语丝》月刊,19994期。

     

    2方舟子的所作所为,其最初动机和最终目的都不过是名利二字。而他选择的道路,就是靠打成名,靠名谋利。见:亦明:《方舟子2012年十大要闻》,中国学术评价网,20121225日。另见:亦明:《文史畸才方舟子》、《科唬作家方舟子》。

     

    3】方舟子:“最佳”诗人》,作于1996125日;见新语丝网站《方舟子诗文集·方舟子杂文》。

     

    4方舟子:《天下文女一大抄,作于19951017日;见新语丝网站《方舟子诗文集·方舟子杂文》。

     

    5】详见亦明:文史畸才方舟子第三篇,《“偷”出来的历史学家》。

     

    6】庄周:《齐人物论(续一)》,《书屋》2000年第924-30页。

     

    7】庄周:《齐人物论:百年散文大盘点(续一》,新语丝2000105日新到资料;USTC:《我所知道的网络写家(1——方舟子》,新语丝读书论坛,2002-08-02 21:31:05;李发文:《我所知道的网络写家方舟子》,新语丝200283日新到资料。注:USTC是方舟子在新语丝上的马甲。

     

    8Dobzhansky, T. 1973. Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution. The American Biology Teacher 35(3):125-129.

     

    9Barras, C. We Have Still not Found the Missing Link between Us and Apes. www.bbc.com, May 18, 2017.

     

    10Anonymous. The Earliest man? A Skull “Millions of Years Old.” The Manchester Guardian, Nov. 21, 1912.

     

    11Anonymous.1912. Notes. Nature 90(2249):3390.

     

    12“the most important discovery of its kind hitherto made in England.” Anonymous. 1912. Palæolithic Man. Nature 90(2251):438.

     

    13“This ill-begotten form of primitive man in the several hundred papers devoted to him received nearly as much attention as all the legitimate specimens in the fossil record put together.”见:Weiner, J. S. The Piltdown Forgery. London, University of Oxford Press, 1955. p.204.

     

    14】方舟子:《驳斥〈华夏文摘〉的反进化论谣言》,新语丝1999627日新到资料。

     

    15】方舟子:《错把业余当专业--关于“《国家地理杂志》古化石骗局”》,新语丝2000531日新到资料。

     

    16】柯南:《真相永远只有一个·辟尔唐人的骗局》,新语丝2001514日。注:该文首发地址是网易的“科学大观论坛,时间是2001-03-17 00:04:38;文尾有这样一句话:“柯南的习作,请大家指正:)”。

     

    17】方舟子此文于2008623日以《“皮尔当人”骗局——科学史上著名公案(9)》为题在《经济观察报》首发;两天后被方舟子以《科学史上著名公案——“皮尔当人”骗局》为题在新语丝网站公布。2009年,该文被方舟子以《“皮尔当人”骗局》为题收入自己的文集《爱因斯坦相信上帝吗?——方舟子解读科学史著名谜团》一书。该文还曾以不同标题在中国多家报刊上重复发表,如《教师博览》200811期、《飞碟探索》200812期、《青年博览》200818 、《意林》200820期、《科技信息》201212A期、《人物汇报》201228期、2012922日《城市商报》、2012926日《重庆日报》,等等。

     

    18】见新语丝读书论坛:2009-04-24 04:58:54

     

    19】方舟子:《皮尔当人骗局》,《飞碟探索》20081245-46

     

    20】戴清:《皮尔当人:英国绅士背后的虚荣》,《飞碟探索》20071036-37页。

     

    21】余英时:《〈周礼〉考证和〈周礼〉的现代启示——金春峯〈周官之成书及其反映的文化与时代新考〉序》,《中国文化》19902174-183页。

     

    22】田汝康:《辟尔当人头骨——英国资产阶级科学界的骗局》,1954610日《光明日报》;李沨:《“辟尔当人”的秘密》,《科学通报》1954566-67页;夏鼐:《“辟尔当人”疑案的解决及其教训》,《科学通报》1954854-56页。

     

    23】见:裴文中:《第二次大战前后世界各地对于人类化石的研究——中国科学院古脊椎动物研究室丙种专刊第一号》,中国科学院1954年版12-14页。

     

    24】中华书局辞海编辑所编:《辞海试行本》第13分册,中华书局1961年版67页。

     

    25】董枝明:《曙人与资产阶级的伪科学》,《化石》1975122页。

     

    26】佚名:《为什么说“曙人”事件是个骗局》,《十万个为什么》第19册,上海人民出版社1976年版118-121页。

     

    27】吴汝康:《古人类史上最使人迷惑的一幕——皮尔唐的科学骗局》。《世界科技研究与发展》1996C1134-138页;吴汝康:《科学史上一场最大的骗局——皮尔唐人化石》,《人类学学报》1997143-54页。

     

    28Walsh, J. E. Unraveling Piltdown: The Science Fraud of the Century and Its Solution. New York, NY: Random House, 1996.

     

    29Shermer, M.  The Great Bone Hoax. Los Angeles Times, Sep. 22, 1996.

     

    30Shermer, M. The Great Bone Hoax: Piltdown and the Self-Correcting Nature of Science. In:  The Borderlands of Science: Where Sense Meets Nonsense. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2001. pp.307-320.

     

    31】详见维基百科“Michael Shermer”词条。(阅读日期:2020629日。)

     

    32Mouallem, O.Making a Living of Bullshit Detecting. VUE Weekly, August 28, 2008.

     

    33】方舟子:《为什么人们相信怪异的事情》,200115日《科学时报·读书周刊》;见新语丝200116日新到资料。

     

    34Michael Shermer针灸出来的漏洞》,新语丝2009518日新到资料。

     

    35】亦明:《方舟子与〈中国青年报〉邪恶同盟的终结·当一个无知被捧为全知》,中国学术评价网,2011112日。

     

    36】本文引用的方舟子《“皮尔当”骗局》一文的文字全部来自新语丝网页:《科学史上著名公案——“皮尔当人”骗局》,新语丝2008年6月25日新到资料。不再说明。

     

    37】方舟子:《多维新闻网剽窃的铁证》,新语丝2000410日新到资料。

     

    38“It is not, however, at all clear from the surviving correspondence when Woodward first saw the cranial fragments, though judging from letter 1.2.4 and 1.2.5 it was not until late May (see 1.2.8).”见:Spencer, F. The Piltdown Papers, 1908-1955: The Correspondence and Other Documents Relating to the Piltdown Forgery. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1990. p.19.

     

    39“As this indicates the Piltdown cranial fragments were not at this time in Woodward’s possession. In fact it appears that Woodward did not see these remains until at least 24 May [1.2.8].”见:The Piltdown Papers, p.21.

     

    40Some time tomorrow (Friday), probably after lunch, I will bring the piece of skull and a few odds and ends found with it, or near it, in the gravel bed.” 见:The Piltdown Papers, p.22.

     

    41The Piltdown Papers, p.203.

     

    42“It was Tuesday, February 15, 1912, a date the keeper would have cause to remember. ……Already on his desk was the day's first mail, and he began flipping through the envelopes, occasionally opening and reading one. When a cancellation from the Sussex town of Lewes caught his eye he easily recognized the small, assured handwriting of the address. It was from his friend Charles Dawson, a solicitor by profession but an amateur geologist and antiquarian of some standing.”见:Walsh, J. E. Unraveling Piltdown: The Science Fraud of the Century and Its Solution. New York, NY: Random House, 1996. p.12.

     

    43“In May, Woodward was given his first look at the discovery itself when Dawson came up to London on business. Visiting his friend in his office at the museum on the afternoon of May 23, he unwrapped a small package on the desk. ‘How's that for Heidelberg!’ he called out happily.” 见:Unraveling Piltdown, p.14.

     

    44方舟子:《虚妄的“人体革命”——评吴伯林〈人体革命--基因科学能使您活150岁》,2000111《中华读书报》。见新语丝2000112日新到资料。

     

    45Dawson, C. & Woodward, AS. 1915. On a Bone Implement from Piltdown (Sussex). Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 71:144-149.

     

    46】见:《人物专访:方舟子论基督教》,新语丝1999910日新到资料。

     

    47Harter, R. Piltdown Man: The Bogus Bones Caper. talkorigins.org,首发时间不详。

     

    48Dalrymple, G. B. The Age of the Earth. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994. pp.15-17.

     

    49“more than twenty-six millions of years must have elapsed during their formation.”见:Sollas, W. J. 1900. Address of the President of the Section of Geology of the British Association. I. Evolutional Geology. Science 12(307):745-756. 关于更新世的年代估计,见:Sollas, W. J. 1900. Address of the President of the Section of Geology of the British Association. II. Obscure Chapter in the Earth’s History. Science 12(308):787-796.  “more than twenty-six millions of years must have elapsed during their formation.”见:Sollas, W. J. 1909. Address of the President of the Section of Geology of the British Association. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 65:1-cxxii.

     

    50“some few hundred thousand years ago.”见:Pycraft, W. P. 1913. Ape-Man or Modern Man? The Two Piltdown Skull Reconstructions. The Illustrated London News 143(3883):444.

     

    51Keith, A. 1913. Modern Problems Relating to the Antiquity of Man. Nature 90(2240):268-271.

     

    52Langdon, J. H. 1991. Misinterpreting Piltdown. Current Anthropology 32(5):627-631.

     

    53“Dr. Woodward, replying to a question as to the approximate date of the skull, told a reporter that it belonged to the Lower Pleistocene period, which could not be computed in terms of years. ”见:Anonymous. Paleolithic Skull Is a Missing LinkHuman Remains Found in England Similar in Some Details to Chimpanzee. New York Times, Dec.19, 1912.

     

    54“It cannot be measured in years only by the sequence of geological events and by the changes in animal life.”见:【51】。

     

    55Wells, H.G. The Outline of History. Vol. I. New York, NY: MacMillan Co., 1920. p.70.

     

    56Anonymous. 1915. Notes. Nature 95(2376):297-300.

     

    57F. L. 1915. Science & Natural History . The Illustrated London News 146(3970):672.

     

    58Mackenzie, L. 1922. Science and Citizenship. The Sociological Review 14(1):39-50.

     

    59Montagu, A. An Introduction to Physical Anthropology. Springfield, IL: Thomas, 1960. p.226.

     

    59“Of very great antiquity, perhaps of 500,000 B. C., are the fragment of a skull (2) discovered at Piltdown, England.”见:Osborn, H. F. 1920. The Hall of the Age of Man in the American Museum. Natural History 20(3):229-246.(注:在1914年的一个讲座中,奥斯本说,当时关于皮尔当人年代的估计,在10万年和30万年之间。“The Piltdown man of Sussex, England. Antiquity variously estimated at 100,000 to 300,000 years.”见:Osborn, H. F. Men of the Old Stone Age: Their Environment, Life, and Art. New York, NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1915. p.145.

     

    60Osborn, H. F. 1921. The Ancestry of Man: Stone Age Skulls and Their Story. The Illustrated London News 158(4264):40-43; Osborn, H. F. 1921. The Hall of the Age of Man in the American Museum. Nature 107(2686):236–240.

     

    61“Modern science is able to estimate the age of man who made implements and fire and his immediate predecessors, at approximately five hundred thousand years.”见:Our earliest Ancestor——The Dawn Man: An authorized interview by Hugh Weir with Henry Fairfield Osborn and William King Gregory. McClure's Magazine 55(1):19-28.

     

    62】例见:Moir, J. R. 1926. Where Did Man Originate? The Illustrated London News, Oct. 30, 1926, p.820,850; Keith, A. Foreword to Woodward, A. S. Earliest Englishman. London, UK: Watts & Co., 1948. p.ix-xiii.

     

    63Davenport, C. B. Traces Evolution by Elephant Teeth: Dr. H.F. Osborn Tells of Gauge "Proving" Man's Ancestry 1,000,000 Years Ago. New York Times, Apr. 26, 1931.

     

    64Kuhn, F. Jr. Piltdown Man Marks Dawn of Human Race, Osborn Says, Contradicting Present Views. New York Times, Sept. 29, 1931.

     

    65“the dates assigned to it range spaciously from 1,000,000 to 125,000 b.c.”见:Durrant, W. The Story of Civilization: Part I. Our Oriental Heritage. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster, 1935. p.92.

     

    66“a dawn man who stalked the earth 100,000 to 600,000 years ago.”见:PILTDOWN MAN BRANDED AS FAKE: CHEMICAL TESTS SHOW FAMED JAWBONE IS That of Ape, British Scientists Report. Los Angeles Times, Nov 22, 1953; Experts Make Monkey of Piltdown Man: Slay Old Belief with Jawbone of Ape. Chicago Daily Tribune, Nov 22, 1953; Piltdown Man Exposed as Scientific Fake. Washington Post, Nov 22, 1953.

     

    67In addition, it is said that the cap of the skull is genuine but, far more recent than had been bellieved-50,000 instead of 500,000 years old.”见:Hillary, J. Piltdown Man Hoax Is Exposed; Jaw an Ape's, Skull Fairly Recent. New York Times, Nov. 22, 1953.

     

    68“In every way Piltdown man provided a fuller picture of the stage of ancestry which man had reached perhaps some 500,000 years ago.”见:Weiner, J. S. 1955. One of the World's Most Amazing Hoaxes. The Illustrated London News 226(6048):498; Weiner, J. S. The Piltdown Forgery. London, University of Oxford Press, 1955. p.2.

     

    69“but surprisingly they appeared to be much younger than was originally thought -- perhaps only 50,000 instead of 500,000 years old.”见:Anonymous. Piltdown Man Is Revealed as Fake. WGBH, 1998.

     

    70】谢真元、门岿编著:《科学家的遗憾》,天津科技翻译出版公司1998年版108-110页。

     

    71】树人:《揭示科学界的20大骗局》,《报林》20061266-70页;何京:《震惊世界的十大科学欺骗》,《科学24小时》2007513-15页。

     

     

    72Anonymous. Dr. Kenneth Oakley: Exposure of Piltdown Hoax. Times, Nov. 5, 1981.

     

    73Weiner, J. S, Oakley, K. P, & Le Gros Clark, W. E. 1953. The Solution of the Piltdown Problem. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Geology 2:139–146.

     

    74“In November, 1953, The Times published evidence gathered by Kenneth Page Oakley, a professor of anthropology from Oxford University demonstrating that the fossil was a composite of three distinct species.”见:英文维基百科“Piltdown Man”词条2008615日版。(阅读日期:2020629日。)

     

    75Goodrum, M. R. and Olson, C. 2009. The Quest for an Absolute Chronology in Human Prehistory: Anthropologists, Chemists and the Fluorine Dating Method in Palaeoanthropology. The British Journal for the History of Science 42(1):95-114.

     

    76Middleton, J. 1845. On Fluorine in Bones, Its Source, and Its Application to the Determination of the Geological Age of Fossil Bones. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 1:214-216.

     

    77Carnot, A. 1892. The Determination of Fluorine. The Chemical News and Journal of Physical Science 65(1691):198-199; Carnot, A . 1892. Recherche du Fluor dans les os modernes et les os Fossiles. Comptes Rendus de L ' Academie des Sciences  114(4):1189-1192.

     

    78Cook, S. F. and Heizer, R. F. 1947. The Quantitative Investigation of Aboriginal Sites: Analyses of Human Bone. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 5(2):201-219.

     

    79Oakley, K. P. 1948. Fluorine and the Relative Dating of Bones. Advancement of Science 4: 336–337.

     

    80It has long been known that fossil bones accumulate fluorine in the course of time.见:Oakley, K.P. & Hoskins, R. C. 1950. New Evidence on the Antiquity of Piltdown Man. Nature 165(4193):379-382.

     

    81“Kenneth Oakley had discovered a long neglected paper published in 1892 by the French mineralogist, Adolphe Carnot, on the absorption of fluorine by fossil bones as a function of age.”见:Ellis, L. Archaeological Method and Theory: An Encyclopedia. New York, NY: Garland Publishing, Inc., 2000. p.219.

     

    82Piltdown Papers, p.181, 183.

     

    83“Eventually, in the 40s and 50s, more advanced dating technologies, such as the fluorine absorption test, scientifically proved that this skull was actually a fraud.” 见:英文维基百科“Piltdown Man”词条2008615日版。(阅读日期:2020629日。)

     

    84“it does not provide a means of close relative dating.”见:Oakley, K. P. 1949. Some Applications of the Fluorine Test. The Archaeological News Letter 2(7):101–103.

     

    85“It is a mistake to suppose that the fluorine content of a fossil bone provides a direct indication of its geological, or R.3, age.”见:Oakley, K. P. Dating Fossil Human Remains. In:  A.L. Kroeber (ed.), Anthropology Today: An Encyclopedic Inventory. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1953. pp.43-56.

     

    86“With the co-operation of the Department of the Government Chemist, the British Museum (Nat. Hist.) has had all the available Piltdown material tested for fluorine.”见:Oakley, K. P. 1949. Some Applications of the Fluorine Test. The Archaeological News Letter 2(7):101–103.

     

    87“less than 100,000 years ago.”见:Oakley, K. P. 1950. Relative Dating of the Piltdown Skull I. Advancement of Science 6:343-344.

     

    88“the last warm interglacial period.”见:Oakley, K. P. & Hoskins, R. C. 1950. New Evidence on the Antiquity of Piltdown Man. Nature 165(4193):379-382.

     

    89In 1950 when a chemical dating test convinced Dr. Kenneth Oakley, British Museum geologist, that the remains were only 50,000 years old instead of a half- million.”见:Berger, C. 1956. Piltdown Hoax: a Fabulous Tale of Faking Came to Light. Popular Science 168(4):121-123.

     

    90“At a Wenner-Gren International Symposium in June 1952, Oakley told his colleagues that Piltdown Man had lived not a million years ago, as Osborn had estimated; not even 200,000 years ago, Keith's estimate; but only about 50,000 years ago. But Eoanthropus had lived.”见:Blinderman, C. The Piltdown Inquest. Prometheus Books, 1986. p.67.

     

    91“the deliberately cautious estimate,”“By Writing ‘probably at least’ Oakley meant to suggest the very minimum.”见:Montagu, A.  A Part of Man's Story. New York Times, Nov. 8, 1953.

     

    92】亦明:《方舟子与陈章良》,天涯社区关天茶舍,2008-01-29 00:47:54

     

    93】亦明:《情到滥发即荒唐——评方舟子〈功到雄奇即罪名》,天涯社区关天茶舍,2009-08-18 22:13:04

     

    94Weiner, J. S. The Piltdown Forgery. London, University of Oxford Press, 1955. pp.26-28.

     

    95】吴汝康:《科学史上一场最大的骗局——皮尔唐人化石》,《人类学学报》1997143-54页。

     

    96】方舟子:《科学院院士也当“王铭铭”》,新语丝2003921日新到资料。

     

    97“The results of the fluorine test have considerably increased the probability that the mandible and cranium represent a single creature.”见:Oakley, K. P. 1950. Relative Dating of the Piltdown Skull. Advancement of Science 6: 343–344.

     

    98“I am not sure whether the fact that Piltdown teeth have been slightly abraded by the action of river sand will make their surfaces difficult to interpret.”见:Oakley, K. P. Letter to David Scott. Dec. 22, 1950. Piltdown Papers, p.192.

     

    99“In the first edition of ‘Man the Tool-Maker’ p.70, I risked hinting that the ‘bone implement’ was a forgery!”见:Oakley, K. P. Letter to Le Gros Clark. Aug. 12, 1953. Piltdown Papers, p.199.

     

    100“It was not till one of us (J. S.W,) in the course of personal discussions put forward this proposition fairly and squarely as the only possible solution of the Piltdown puzzle, pointed out that the organic content of the mandible had never been examined, and moreover demonstrated experimentally that artificial abrasion of the teeth of a chimpanzee combined with appropriate staining produced an appearance astonishingly similar to the Piltdown molars and canine, that we decided on a critical re-study of all the Piltdown material with this specific possibility directly in view.”见:Weiner, J. S, Oakley, K. P, & Le Gros Clark, W. E.1953. The Solution of the Piltdown Problem. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Geology 2:139146.

     

    101“But because of the eventual significance of the fluorine testing it has come to be thought by many that Oakley was the prime mover in the Piltdown exposure. In the event, though he was throughout enthusiastic, assiduous, unremittant and careful, his role was essentially supportive and collaborative. The essential credit for exposing the fraud, and by so doing, clarifying our whole understanding of morphological trends in human evolution, must lie primarily with J. S. Weiner.”见:Harrison, G. A. 1983. J.S. Weiner and the Piltdown forgery. Antiquity 57 (219):46-48.

     

    102“Then, in 1949, Kenneth P. Oakley applied his fluorine test to the Piltdown remains. ……Both the skull and jaw of Piltdown contained barely detectable amounts of fluorine, they could not have lain long in the gravels. Oakley still did not suspect fakery. He proposed that Piltdown, after all, had been a relatively recent interment into ancient gravels…….But a few years later, in collaboration with J.S. Weiner and W.E. le Gros Clark, Oakley finally considered the obvious alternative-that the ‘interment’ had been made in this century with intent to defraud.”见:Gould, S. J. 1979. Piltdown Revisited. Natural History 88(3):86-97.

     

    103Anonymous. Piltdown Man Forgery: Jaw and Tooth of Modern Ape, “Eleborate Hoax.”. Times, November 21, 1953.

     

    104Hillary, J. Piltdown Man Hoax Is Exposed: Jaw an Ape's, Skull Fairly Recent. New York Times Nov. 22, 1953.

     

    105Oakley, K. P. & Weiner, J. S. 1953. Chemical Examination of the Piltdown Implements. Nature 172(4389):1110.

     

    106Weiner, J. S. et al. 1955. Further Contributions to the Solution of the Piltdown Problem. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Geology 2(6): 225-287.

     

    107De Vries, H. and Oakley, K. P. 1959. Radiocarbon Dating of the Piltdown Skull and Jaw. Nature 184(4682):224–226.

     

    108】李佐忠:《年龄的铁证》,《课外学习》1982145-48页。

     

    109】刘华杰:《网上再访方舟子》,2000221日《科学时报》;见新语丝200033日新到资料。

     

    110方舟子:《进化新篇章》,湖南教育出版社2000年版204页。

     

    111Anonymous. Piltdown Man Hoax: Protest against “Attacks.” Times, Nov. 26, 1953.

     

    112“rather sad but exceedingly interesting,”“Prof. Hergert Fleure, 76-year-old anthropological authority, said it was "a very clever deception by someone with some scientific knowledge--perhaps a student who wanted to play a practical joke.'”见:AP. ‘Rather Sad,' Professor Says. New York Times, Nov. 23, 1953; Anonymous. Practical Joke Suspected in Piltdown Hoax: Scientists Believe Skull’s Finder Was Duped. Washington Post, Nov. 23, 1953.

     

    113Anonymous. 1961. Mermaids, the Piltdown Skull and Other Curious or Brilliant Hoaxes. The Illustrated London News 238(6340):175.

     

    114Stringer, C. 2012. The 100-year Mystery of Piltdown Man: Chris Stringer Explains Why the Longest-running Whodunnit in Palaeontology Is Still Worth Solving.  Nature 492(7428): 177-179.

     

    115“attempts to discover ‘whodunnit’ in this mystery have somewhat obscured a far more important question in the history of anthropology, namely, what could have led so many eminent scientists to embrace such a forgery?”见:Hammond, M. 1979 A Framework of Plausibility for an Anthropological Forgery: The Piltdown Case. Anthropology 3(1/2):47-58.

     

    116“it makes me angry to see the amount of effort that has been frittered away on this trivial whodunit.”见:Bowler, P. J. 1987. Review of The Piltdown Inquest by Charles Blinderman. Isis 78 (3):459.

     

    117“What Piltdown raises, as the archetypal scientific fraud, are questions about the scientific process: How does fraud work? What structures exist in science to prevent its detection?”见:Marks, J. M. 1992. Review of Frank Spencer’s Piltdown: A Scientific Forgery and The Piltdown Papers. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 87(3):376-381.

     

    118“the scientific method must still be considerably short of perfection.”见:Anonymous. The Piltdown Man. Washington Post, Nov. 23, 1953. p.12.

     

    119Halstead, L B. The Piltdown Hoax. Times, Nov. 25, 1978.

     

    120Broad, W. and Wade, N. Betrayers of the Truth: Fraud and Deceit in the Halls of Science. Simon & Schuster, 1982. pp.119-123.

     

    121“It now turns out that all the Piltdown remains were stained with the same chemical recipe, one that was invented by Hinton.”见:Gee, H. 1996. Box of Bones 'Clinches' Identity of Piltdown Palaeontology Hoaxer. Nature 381(6580):261–262.

     

    122“Crucially, analyses of the contents of Hinton's trunk by Currant and Gardiner show that they are enriched in iron as well as manganese–in the same proportions as in the Piltdown specimens.”出处同上。

     

    123... all specimens were also analysed for manganese which was found to be absent in all cases down to the sensitivity limits of the apparatus.”“It is not clear to me why apatite ( calcium phosphate) should be turned into gypsum ( calcium sulphate) by treatment with chromic acid.”见:Hall, E.T. 1996. Riddle of the Tenth Man. Nature 381 (6585):728.

     

    124“The case against Hinton is not what it seems. The motive suggested by Gardiner (a quarrel about money) does not work because of timing; the incident in question happened in 1911; the first finds were in 1908. More importantly the chemical analyses do not match. The Hinton samples include Manganese; the Piltdown specimens do not. The Hinton samples do not contain gypsum (produced from the organic material); the Piltdown specimens do. [Drawhorn, correspondence]. Walsh notes that there were legitimate reasons for Hinton to have this material, including doing tests for Oakley. In any event it would have been physically impossible for Hinton to have been the sole hoaxer because he did not have the requisite access to the site in the 1912-1914 period.”见:Harter, R. Piltdown Man: The Bogus Bones Caper. talkorigins.org

     

    125Gardiner B. G. and Currant A. 1996. The Piltdown Hoax Who Done It. Linnean Society of London, Burlington House.

     

    126“Contrary to the results of E. Hall (unpublished PhD thesis) our flame absorption analysis showed manganese to be present in all the bones tested. E592 (right parietal) 252ppm; E644 Barkham Mills skull 443ppm;E615 (cricket bat) 431ppm.”见:Gardiner, B. G. The Piltdown Forgery: A Re-statement of the Case against Hinton. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 139(3): 315–335.

     

    127“Although gypsum was not present in E615 (‘cricket bat’) or any of the bones in the trunk, gypsum was found in the human teeth from the tobacco tin donated by Hinton’s executor.”出处同上。

     

    128talkorigins.org那篇网文的作者名叫理查德·哈特尔(Richard Harter)。根据一份讣告,他生于1935年,死于2012年,三十岁时从南达科他州立大学获得数学学士学位。根据该网站网友的回忆,他从上世纪八十年代初起就在这个网站“捍卫科学和进化论、反击神创论(Richard was a staunch defender of science and evolution and a vocal opponent of stupidity (aka creationism))。(Moran, L. A. Richard Harter 1935–2012. sandwalk.blogspot.com, June 13, 2012.)但可惜的是,和方舟子一样,这个“科学卫士”在学术界和科学界一文不名。(见维基百科:Talk:Piltdown Man.阅读日期:2020629日。)

     

    129江晓原:《需要这样的“学术警察”》,2001年5月30日《中华读书报》;见新语丝2001年5月30日新到资料。

     

     

    130方舟子:《进化新篇章》,湖南教育出版社2000年版283页;见《〈进化新篇章〉后记》,新语丝2001414日新到资料。

     

    131】刘华杰:《网上访科学/人文两栖学人方舟子》,2000221日《科学时报》;见新语丝200029日新到资料。

     

    132】刘菊花:《网络奇才方舟子》,新语丝2001728日新到资料;刘菊花:《读〈溃疡——直面中国学术腐败〉》,2001718日《工人日报》,新语丝2001728日新到资料。

     

    133】关于方舟子的“科学哲学”和“科学史”根底,详见亦明《方舟子与〈中国青年报》邪恶同盟的终结》相关章节。

     

    134“As a narrative story, the Piltdown discovery-a big brain atop an apelike jaw -fit the scientific and cultural expectations of the day in that it conveniently supported the prevailing theory (read ‘hope’) that humans first evolved a big brain and only later such features as bipedalism and tool use. Afterall, it was argued, it was our singular ability to think in abstract ways, to plot and strategize and communicate complex ideas, that allowed us, in this progressivist model, to take the great leap forward in evolution above and beyond our simian an­cestors. Their bodies may have been similar, but their brains were not. Exceptional encephalization was what set us apart.”见:【30】。

     

    135】方舟子:《猿怎样变成了人》,新语丝之友,2000-01-10 16:04:44

     

    136】方舟子:《寻找“缺环”》,新语丝之友,2000-01-19 14:24:55。注:周国兴在1980年写道:“当时有一个传统见解,认为人脑的发展先于人体的其他部分。爪哇直立猿人长期得不到承认,也正是因为它和这个观念相抵触。当时北京人的头盖骨和文化遗物还没有发现,这一观念还没有被触动。再加上当时那个伪造的所谓‘曙人’正在英国大肆宣传,而‘曙人’正是有一个大脑袋的所谓‘最早的人’。既然这样,说小脑袋的塔昂幼儿居然能够直立行走,怎么可能呢?”(见:周国兴:《人怎样认识自己的起源 人类起源研究史话(下)》,中国青年出版社1980年版34页。)周氏说“人脑的发展先于人体的其他部分”是“一个传统见解”,并不确切;将爪哇人得不到承认完全归之于“它和这个观念相抵触”,也与史书所载不符。见:Marsh, O. C. 1896. The Ape-Man from the Tertiary of Java.Science 3(74):789-793; Theunissen, L.T. Eugène Dubois and the Ape-Man from Java: The History of the First ‘Missing Link’ and Its Discoverer. Dordrecht, NL: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1989. Pp.79-126; Gould, S. J. 1990. Men of the Thirty-third Division. Natural History 90(4):12-24; Reader, J. Missing Links: In Search of Human Origins. Oxford. UK: Oxford University Press, 2011. pp.131-135.

     

    137】方舟子:《进化新篇章》,湖南教育出版社2000年版216页。

     

    138】古尔德的这篇文章有三个版本,各版本间略有差异。这三个版本分别是:1. Gould, S. J. 1979. Piltdown Revisited. Natural History 88(3):86-97; 2. Gould, S. J. 1979. Smith Woodward's Folly. New Scientist 82(1149):42-44; 3. Gould, S. J. 1979. Piltdown Revisited. In: The Panda's Thumb: More Reflections in Natural History. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Co., 1980. pp.108-124.

     

    139“A human cranium with an ape's jaw strikes us today as sufficiently incongruous to merit strong suspicion. Not so in 1913. At that time, many leading paleontologists maintained an a priori preference largely cultural in origin, for "brain primacy" in human evolution. The argument rested on a false inference from contemporary importance to historical priority: We rule today by virtue of our intelligence. Therefore, in our evolution, an enlarged brain must have preceded and inspired all other alterations of our body. We should expect to find human ancestors with enlarged, perhaps nearly modern, brains and a distinctly simian body.”见:Gould, S. J. The Panda's Thumb: More Reflections in Natural History. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Co., 1980. pp.116-117.

     

    140“That his brain had advanced more rapidly than his face and jaw was precisely in accord with current ideas.”见:Weiner, J. S. The Piltdown Forgery. London, University of Oxford Press, 1955. p.6.

     

    141方舟子:《科学普及塑造第一科技强国》,19991215《中华读书报》。见新语丝1999年12月16日新到资料。

     

    142亦明:《创作、翻译、编译、还是抄袭?——评方舟子的〈“智商”的误区〉》,光明网,2011-01-26 16:23:43

     

    143方舟子新浪微博,2011-8-23 00:16

     

    144】Gould, S. J. 1979. Piltdown Revisited. Natural History 88(3):86-97.

     

    145Gould, S. J. 1975. Posture Maketh the Man. Natural History 84(9):38-40, 44.

     

    146Anonymous. 1937. Sir Grafton Elliot Smith, F. R. S. Nature 139(3506):57–60;  Young, M. 1937. Sir Grafton Elliot Smith, M. A., M. D., F. R. S., Litt. D., D. Sc., F. R. C. P. Man 37(3):51-53; Anonymous. Sir Grafton Elliot Smith: Pioneer Work in Anthropology. Times, Jan. 2, 1937.

     

    147Smith, G.E. 1912. The British Association at Dundee: Section H.: Anthropology: Opening Address. Nature 90(2239):118-126; Smith, G.E. Presidential Address. Report of the 82nd Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Dundee, 1912, September 4-11. London, UK: John Murray, 1913. pp.575-598.

     

    148“So far from being an impossible combination of characters, this association of brain and simian features, is precisely what I anticipated in my address to the British Association at Dundee.”见:Smith, G. E. 1913. The Piltdown Skull. Nature 92(2292):131.

     

    149“The growth of the brain preceded the refinement of the features and of the somatic characters in general.”见:Smith, G. E. 1913. Preliminary Report on the Cranial Cast. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 69:145-147.

     

    150“it was the growth of the brain that first brought an ape to man’s estate.”见:Smith, G. E. 1914. The Significance of the Discovery at Piltdown. Bedrock: A Quarterly Journal of Scientific Thought 3(1): 1-17.

     

    151“The outstanding interest of the Piltdown skull is the confirmation it affords of the view that in the evolution of man the brain led the way. It is the veriest truism that man has emerged from the simian state in virtue of the enrichment of the structure of his mind. It is singular that so much biological speculation has neglected to give adequate recognition to this cardinal fact. The brain attained what may be termed the human rank at a time when the jaws and face, and no doubt the body also, still retained much of the uncouthness of man's simian ancestors. In other words, man at first, so far as his general appearance and ‘build’ are concerned, was merely an ape with an over­grown brain. The importance of the Piltdown skull lies in the fact that it affords tangible confirmation of these inferences.”见:Smith, G. E. 1916. Primitive Man. Proceedings of the British Academy 7:455-505.

     

    152“The conventional interpretation is that the forgery was a masterful splicing of human and orangutan bones to provide material support for (or mockery of) the theories of Grafton Elliott Smith and Arthur Keith.”见:Langdon, J. H. 1991. Misinterpreting Piltdown. Current Anthropology 32(5):627-631.

     

    153“which was designed to suggest cerebral primacy in the evolution from ape to human ancestors.”见:Foster, J. B. The Return of Nature: Socialism and Ecology. New York, NY: NYU Press, 2020. p.278.

     

    154“The skull differed so much from those of the cavemen already found in Germany, Belgium, and France that it was difficult at first sight to interpret it.”见:Anonymous. A Palaeolithic Skull. Times, Dec. 19, 1912.

     

    155Piltdown Papers, p.2.

     

    156Piltdown Papers, pp.26-27; White, M. J. William Boyd Dawkins and the Victorian Science of Cave Hunting: Three Men in a Cavern. South Yorkshire, UK: Pen and Sword History, 2016. p.225.

     

    157“I fully accept Dr. Smith Woodward's opinion that the find belongs to the early Pleistocene period.”见:Dawkins, W. B. The Geological Evidence in Britain as to the Antiquity of Man. Report of the 85th Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Manchester, 1915, September 7-11. London, UK: John Murray, 1916. pp.421-423.

     

    158Pycraft, W. P. 1912. Science Jottings: Man and his Origin.The Illustrated London News 141(3834):541.

    159Spencer, F. Piltdown: A Scientific Forgery. Oxford University Press, 1990. p.xxiv, 65.

     

    160“A discovery of supreme importance to all who are interested in the history of the human race.”见:Pycraft, W. P. 1912. The Most Ancient Inhabitant of England: The Newly-Found Sussex Man. The Illustrated London News 141(3845):958.

     

    161Langham, I. 1978. Talgai and Piltdown – The Common Context. The Artefact 3(4): 181–224.另见:Millar, R. W. The Piltdown Man. New York, NY: St. Martin's Press, 1972. pp.150-152; Spencer, F. Piltdown: A Scientific Forgery. Oxford University Press, 1990. p.93.

     

    162“and it certainly helped to create a climate of opinion in which the Piltdown fraud would be taken seriously.”见:Bowler, P. J. Theories of Human Evolution : A Century of Debate, 1844-1944. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986. p.164.

     

    163“On the anatomical side, the Piltdown skull realized largely the antipations of students of human evolution.”见:Weiner, J. S. The Piltdown Forgery. London, University of Oxford Press, 1955. p.6.

     

    164Dawson, C. and Woodward, A. S. 1913. On the Discovery of a Palæolithic Human Skull and Mandible in Flint-Bearing Gravel Overlying the Wealden (Hastings Beds) at Piltdown, Fletching (Sussex). Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society 69(1):117-151.

     

    165“Whether the erect attitude or the characteristic brain-development  was first obtained by man has been debated for many  years. In this case, the evidence was taken to show that the assumption of the erect attitude came as a means of surmounting the crux of the situation. Thenceforth the upper limb was emancipated entirely from its locomotor functions. Upon this emancipation followed the liberation of jaws and mouth from their use as organs of prehension. Simultaneously the mechanism whereby the head is attached to the neck and trunk became profoundly modified. This alteration gave to the brain an opportunity of growth and increase previously denied, but now seized, with the consequent accession of intellectual activity so characteristic of the Hominidae.”见:Duckworth, W. L. H. Prehistoric Man. Cambridge University Press, 1912. p.3.

     

    166“I am still unable to match the Piltdown mandible in regard to the symphysial (or para-symphysial) region!”见:Piltdown Papers, p.69.

     

    167“Dr. W. D. H. Duckworth, Reader in Anthropology in Cambridge University, said he had come independently to the conclusion that a mistake had been made in the reconstruction of the Piltdown skull. In his opinion Professor Keith was right: the Brain capacity was nearly 1,500 cubic centimeters.”见:Anonymous. The Piltdown Skull: Discussion on the Size of the Brain. Times, Aug. 12, 1913.

     

    168“His knowledge of the non-metrical features of the primate skull was unique, and his experience had given him a redoubtable sense of the appropriate in reconstructions. Consequently, he was always critical of the association of the Piltdown jaw with the cranium, and if he had been listened to in the earlier discussions on that material, several reputations in human palaeontology might be a little less tarnished than they now are.”见:Boyd, J. 1956. Dr. W. L H. Duckworth. Nature 177(4507):505–506.

     

    169Tobias, P. V. Introduction to a Forgery. In: Spencer, F. Piltdown: A Scientific Forgery. Oxford University Press, 1990. pp.viii-xii.

     

    170】李济:《论“道森氏·晓人”案件及原始资料之鉴定与处理》,《现代学术季刊》1957年第1卷第21-13页。

     

    171Anonymous. 1916. Societies and Academies. Nature 97(2418):25-27.

     

    172“forever demolish all heresies.”见:Miller, G. S. Letter to A. S. Woodward. March 21, 1917. Piltdown Papers, 144-145.

     

    173“From the new facts now described it seems reasonable to conclude that Eoanthropus dawsoni will eventually prove to be as definite and distinct a form of early Man as was at first supposed; for the occurrence of the same type of frontal bone with the same type of lower molar in two separate localities adds to the probability that they belonged to one and the same species.”见:Woodward , A . S . 1917. Fourth Note on the Piltdown Gravel, with Evidence of a Second Skull of Eoanthropus dawsoni. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society 73(1):1-10.

     

    174】“Very recently the jaw of the Piltdown man has been restudied and referred by more than one expert to a fully adult chimpanzee. This leaves us still in doubt as to the exact geologic age and relationships of the Piltdown man…”见:Osborn, H. F. Men of the Old Stone Age: Their Environment, Life, and Art. New York, NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1918. p.144.

     

    175“The problem whether the Piltdown jaw belongs to this human skull or whether it belongs to a fossil chimpanzee is still not actually settled.”见:Osborn, H. F. 1920. The Hall of the Age of Man in the American Museum. Natural History 20(3):229-246.

     

    176“La déconveite de l’homme de Piltdown est peut-être le fait le plus important qui se soit produit en Paléontologie humaine depuis dix ans”“Comme par exprès, le condyle s’est trouvé manquer!”见:Teilhard de Chardin P. 1920. Le cas de l'homme de Piltdown. Revue des Questions Scientifiques 77:149155.

     

    177Gould, S. J. 1980. The Piltdown Conspiracy. Natural History  89(8):8-28.

     

    178“Eoanthropus, the ‘dawn man’ of Piltdown, has had a battle royal for recognition by the scientific world. Since the first fragments of his skull were reported in 1911 by the geologist, Charles Dawson, and first made known to the scientific world in I913 by Dawson and Arthur Smith Woodward, the latter Keeper of Fossils in the British Museum, the contest of opinion has been long and heated and at times acrimonious. Over a few fragments of skull bone, three teeth, and a portion of the jaw, the wise anatomists of Great Britain, of western Europe, and of the North American continent have expressed opinions of every variety.”见:Osborn, H. F. 1921. The Dawn Man of Piltdown, Sussex. Natural History 21(6):577-590.

     

    179“Even to this day, however, some anthropologists  regard this jaw as belonging to a new type of ape.”见: Smith, G. E. Human History. London: Jonathan Cape Ltd., 1934. pp.84-86.

     

    180“The problem whether the Piltdown jaw belongs to this human skull or whether it belongs to a fossil chimpanzee is now actually settled, because a second specimen of the Piltdown man has been found two miles from the first in the same Piltdown gravels; this specimen has the same kind of lower grinding teeth and the same form in the bone of the forehead.”见:Osborn, H. F. The Hall of the Age of Man. The Guide Leaflet Series No. 52. American Museum of Natural History, 1923. p.9.

     

    181】刘咸:《从猿到人发展史》,中国科学图书仪器公司1950年版53页。

     

    182“Paradoxical as it may appear, O Lord, it is nevertheless true, etc.”“the writer desires not only to recant his former doubts as to the association of the jaw with the skull.”见:Osborn, H. F. 1921. The Dawn Man of Piltdown, Sussex. Natural History 21(6):577-590.

     

    183DeSimone, A. A. Ancestors or Aberrants: Studies in the History of American Paleoanthropology, 1915–1940. University of Massachusetts Amherst, Ph. D. Dissertation, 1986. pp.37-39. 关于奥斯本的种族主义思想,见:Osborn, H. F. 1926. The Evolution of Human Races. Natural History 26(1):3-13; Morris,  H. M. and ‎ Morris, J. D. The Modern Creation Trilogy: Scripture and Creation, Science and Creation, Society and Creation. Green Forest, AR: Master Books, 1996. p.101; Regal, B. Henry Fairfield Osborn: Race and the Search for the Origins of Man. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Co., 2018. p.xvi, 102.

     

    184“a memorial to a forgery and its forger.”见:Donovan, S. 2016. The Triumph of the Dawsonian Method. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association. 127(1):101-106.

     

    185“an examination of the cranial fragments in detail  shows a greater harmony between the anatomical features of the jaw  and cranium than has usually been believed to exist.”转引自:Miller, G. S. Jr. 1928. The Controversy over Human “Missing Links.” Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1928, pp.413–465.

     

    186“the skull is brought into closer relation with the skull of the anthropoids”; “As a result, the cranium falls into complete harmony with the chimpanzee-like jaw”; “the paradox which has hitherto been a stumbling-block to the acceptance of the jaw as indubitably belonging to the fragments of the cranium now disappears.”见:Anonymous. 1922. Research Items. Nature 109(2744):726.

     

    187Anonymous. 1913. The Piltdown Skull. Nature 91(2286):640–641; Anonymous. 1913. Ape-Man or Modern Man? the Two Piltdown Skull Reconstructions. The Illustrated London News 143(3878):245; Keith, A. 1913. Ape-Man or Modern Man? the Two Piltdown Skull Reconstructions. The Illustrated London News 143(3879:282; Anonymous. The Piltdown Skull: Discussion on the Size of the Brain. Times, Aug. 12, 1913.

     

    188Anonymous. 1925. Whence Man? Time 5(22):18-19; Cole, F. 1925. The Evolution of Man. The Scientific Monthly21(3):317-322; Scopes, J. T. The World's Most Famous Court Trial. Cincinnati , OH: National Book Company, 1925. p.237, 278.

     

    189“If the Piltdown jaw belongs with the skull, and of this there can be little reasonable doubt, we shall have to abandon the old functional theory that the human brain evolved because the jaws atrophied and shrank, as a result of their loss of function through the freeing of the arms for prehension.”见:Hooton, E. A. Up from the Apes. London: Allen & Unwin, 1931. p.314.

     

    190“This is one way of getting rid of facts which do not fit into a preconceived theory; the usual way pursued by men of science is, not to get rid of facts, but frame theory to fit them.”见:Gould, S. J. 1979. Piltdown Revisited. Natural History 88(3):86-97.

     

    191“Evolution is not a harmonious progression of all parts of the organism; it is a jerky and asymmetrical transformation.”见:Hooton, E. A. Up from the Apes. New York, NY: MacMillan Co., 1946. p.311.

     

    192“The skull and jaw of the ‘Piltdown Man,’ found in a gravel pit in England and announced to the world in 1912, were a sensation because the discovery upset prevailing theories about the antiquity of the modem human form.”见:Wilford, J. N. Mastermind of Piltdown Hoax Unmasked? New York Times, June 5, 1990.

     

    193“Indeed, out of Germany came a treasure trove of fossils, starting with the breath­taking finds from the valley of Neander, giving the name to the most famous of all our ancestors. Out of France came our most recent and advanced relatives, the Cro-Magnons, with their cave paintings, clothing, jewelry, and complex tool kits that allowed them to develop what could genuinely be called culture. Ad­ditional fossils were discovered in Holland, Belgium, and scattered areas of Asia and Southeast Asia, including significant finds at Peking (‘Peking Man’) in China and at Java (‘Java Man’) in southeast Asia. ……It seemed everyone was getting in on the great human fossil hunt; everyone except the English, that is. Was it possible that humans did not evolve in En­gland? Were Englishmen nothing more than a recent migration from the con­tinent, a backwater of human evolution? If only an ancient hominid could be found here. And what a coup it would be that if that hominid, unlike many of the finds coming from elsewhere, clearly showed a humanlike brain sitting atop more primitive primate features, especially a jaw. Seek and ye shall find, build it and they will come -pick your metaphor. The British got what they were wishing for in 1912. ”见:【30】。

     

    194“Before Piltdown English paleoanthropology was mired in a limbo now occupied by students of extraterrestrial life: endless fields for speculation and no direct evidence. Beyond some flint "cultures" of doubtful human workmanship and some bones strongly suspected as products of recent interments into ancient gravels, England knew nothing of its most ancient ancestors. France, on the other hand, had been blessed with a superabundance of Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons and their associated art and tools. And French anthropologists delighted in rubbing English noses with this marked disparity of evidence. Piltdown could not have been better designed to turn the tables. It seemed to predate Neanderthal by a considerable stretch of time. If human fossils had a fully modern cranium hundreds of thousands of years before beetle-browed Neanderthal appeared, then Piltdown must be our ancestor and the French Neanderthals a side branch.”见:Gould, S. J. 1979. Piltdown Revisited. Natural History 88(3):86-97.

     

    195“Piltdown also buttressed some all too familiar racial views among white Europeans. In the 1930s and 1940s, following the discovery of Peking man in strata approximately equal in age with the Piltdown gravels, phyletic trees based on Piltdown and affirming the antiquity of white supremacy began to appear in the literature (although they were never adopted by Piltdown's chief champions, Smith Woodward, Smith, and Keith). Peking man (originally called Sinanthropus, but now placed in Homo erectus ) lived in China with a brain two-thirds modern size, while Piltdown man, with its fully developed brain, inhabited England. If Piltdown, as the earliest Englishman, was the progenitor of white races, while other hues must trace their ancestry to Homo erectus, then whites crossed the threshold to full humanity long before other people. As longer residents in this exalted state, whites must excel in the arts of civilization.”出处同上。

     

    196“No one has ever (and rightly, in my opinion) suspected Smith Woodward, the superstraight arrow who devoted his life to the reality of Piltdown and who, past eighty and blind, dictated in retirement his last book with its chauvinistic title, The Earliest Englishman (1948).”出处同上。

     

    197】日加洛夫:《英国新法西斯主义:起源、主旨、特征》,原载苏联《历史问题》19807期;桂宝康摘译,见:《现代外国哲学社会科学(文摘)》1981244-45页。

     

    198“From the 1840s to the 1940s, Britain's "native policy" was dominated by racism. The golden age of the British Empire was the golden age of British racism too.”见:Fryer, P. Staying Power: The History of Black People in Britain. London, UK: Pluto Press, 1984. p.165.

     

    199】方舟子:《信仰马克思主义的西方科学大师》,20021010日《南方周末》;见新语丝20021011日新到资料。

     

    200“Dr. Smith Woodward, the retiring Keeper of Geology at the British Museum, is famous for his work on the Piltdown Skull.”见:C. N and Barratt. 1924. Personalities of the Week: People in the Public Eye. The Illustrated London News 164(4429): 393.

     

    201“the three leading lights of British anthropology and paleontology.”见:Gould, S. J. 1979. Piltdown Revisited. Natural History 88(3):86-97.

     

    202Reader, J. Missing Links: The Hunt for Earliest Man. Boston, MA: Little, Brown & Company, 1981. p.54.

     

    203“a proponent of scientific racism.”见:英文维基百科,Arthur Keith。(阅读日期:2020629日。)另见:Sawday, J. ‘New Men, Strange Faces, Other Minds’: Arthur Keith, Race and the Piltdown Affair (1912–53). In: Ernst, W. and Harris, B. (eds.) Race, Science and Medicine, 1700-1960. London, UK: Routledge, 1999. pp.259-288; Taguieff, P. The Force of Prejudice: On Racism and Its Doubles. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 2001. pp.362-363.

     

    204“Believing, however, that heredity is true, I have difficulty in even supposing that the native peoples  of Africa were ever pioneers in advancing the cultures of the world” “In the Chinese culture of to-day old things are combined with new; there seems to have been the same mixture in the Chinese cultures of palaeolithic times.”见:Keith, A. New Discoveries Relating to the Antiquity of Man. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Co., 1931. p.171, 247.

     

    205Osborn, H. F. Hesperopithecus, the First Anthropoid Primate Found in America. American Museum Novitates No. 37, April 25, 1922; Osborn, H. F. 1922. Hesperopithecus, the First Anthropoid Primate Found in America. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 8(8): 245–246; Osborn, H. F. 1922. Hesperopithecus, the First Anthropoid Primate Found in North America. Science. 55 (1427):463–465.

     

    206Smith, G. E. The Earliest Man? An American Discovery. Times, May 20, 1922.

     

    207Woodward, A. S. The Earliest Man? Times, May 22, 1922; Woodward, A. S. 1922. A Supposed Ancestral Man in North America. Nature 109(2745):750.

     

    208Smith, G. E. 1922. Hesperopithecus: The Ape-Man of the Western World. The Illustrated London News 160(4340):944.

     

    209“One of my friends, Prof. G. Elliot Smith, has perhaps shown too great optimism in his most interesting newspaper and magazine articles on Hesperopithecus.”见:Osborn, H. F. 1922. Hesperopithecus, the Anthropoid Primate of Western Nebraska. Nature 110(2756):281–283.

     

    210“Reduction of black pigment in the skin”; “This process of suppression of pigment - formation was carried farthest in the blond Nordic race.”见:【208

     

    211Smith, G. E. Foreword: Man’s Pedigree. In: Smith, G. E. The Evolution of Man. London, UK: Oxford University Press, 1924. pp.1-15.

     

    212“In the process of evolution of the races of Mankind there was a progressive loss of pigmentation.”见:Smith, G. E. Human History. London: Jonathan Cape Ltd., 1934. p.76.

     

    213The Japanese, for instance, sometimes have a skin as white as the European, especially in those parts of the body which are protected by clothing from exposure to the sun.”出处同上,pp.149-150.

     

    214The Japanese make steam-engines and build battleships, although they had no share in the invention of these devices of Western civilization.”“A considerable ingredient in the composition of the population of Japan is formed by this Mediterranean element.”出处同上,p.113, 153.

     

    215“It would be interesting and entertaining to discuss the history of some of the false claims made by over-enthusiastic searchers in different parts of the world; such, for example, as the mistaking of …..or the assumption that the tooth of a Pliocene peccary from Nebraska gave America the right to claim this ‘Playboy of the Western World’ (Hesperopithecus) as the earliest known member of the Human Family.”见:Smith, G. E. Early Man: His Origin, Development and Culture. London, UK: Ernest Benn Limited, 1931. p.20.

     

    216Osborn, H. F. 1927. Recent Discoveries Relating to the Origin and Antiquity of Man. Science 65 (1690): 481-488; Osborn, H. F. 1927. Recent Discoveries Relating to the Origin and Antiquity of Man. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 66:373–389.

     

    217Gregory, W.K. 1927. Hesperopithecus Apparently not an Ape nor a Man. Science 66 (1720):579–581; Anonymous. Nebraska Ape Tooth Proved a Wild Pigs: 'Million-Dollar' Molar Stirred. New York Times, Feb. 20, 1928.

     

    218】周国兴:《人怎样认识自己的起源 人类起源研究史话 下》,中国青年出版社1980年版55页。注:周国兴所说的故事,很可能是根据前苏联1959年出版的一本书:“The reactionary German scientist, Franz Koch, whom we have already mentioned, made original use of the discovery of the Hesperopithecus. In a monograph (l929, S. 164, Karte X) he included a curious genealogy in which the Hesperopithecus was shown as an ancestor of modern man. Since Koch's monograph gave the central place to the North European or Nordic race as being the highest type of human being, he had included that fossil North American pig amongst the ancestors of his Nordic man.”(Nesturkh, M. F. The Origin of Man. Moscow, USSR:  Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1959. p.74.

     

    219】转引自:夏鼐:《“辟尔当人”疑案的解决及其教训》,《科学通报》1954854-56页。

     

    220】梁国钊:《科研与道德》,广西人民出版社1986年版114页。

     

    221“Although his theory was first publicized in the second decade of the century, he did not mention genes, but rather spoke about heredity through hormones.”见:Barkan, E. The Retreat of Scientific Racism:_Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States between the World Wars.Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992. p.42.

     

    222】见:1925年出版的《远古人类》第二版(Keith, A. The Antiquity of Man. London, UK: Williams and Norgate, 1925. Two volumes, 753 pages); 1931年出版的《与远古人类有关的新发现》(Keith, A. New Discoveries Relating to the Antiquity of Man. London, UK: Williams and Norgate, 1931. One volume, 512 pages)。

     

    223Barkan, E. The Retreat of Scientific Racism: Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States between the World Wars.Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992. p.42.另外,耶鲁大学生物学家兰铎说:纪斯对皮尔当人头骨的描述与史密斯的描述是那么不同,以致人们会怀疑他们是在描述同一件化石。(“Keith's description of the Piltdown skull differs so much from the one found in Elliot Smith's The Evolution of Man that one may wonder whether they refer to the same fossil.”见: Landau, M. Narratives of Human Evolution. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993. p.5.

     

    224Editorial. 2012. John Maddox prize: Two Strong-minded Individuals Are the First Winners of an Award for Standing up for Science. Nature 491(7423):160.

     

    225Ge, X. A Response to the Statement by Ms. Tracey Brown, Dr. Philip Campbell, and Dr. Colin Blakemore, 3 Judges of the John Maddox Prize. China Academic Integrity Review, July, 11, 2013; 亦明:《方舟子2013年十大要闻十、大不劣癫,啊美丽奸》,中国学术评价网,20131231日。

     

    226“Professor Keith also drew attention to the fact that when the skull, as reconstructed by Dr. Smith Woodward, was articulated to the backbone, the upper joints of the spinal column came so near the palate that the person, as reconstructed at South Kensington, could neither breathe nor eat. It was possible, the speaker added, that Eoanthropus could not speak, but they must suppose he could breathe and eat.”见:Anonymous. The Piltdown Skull: Discussion on the Size of the Brain. Times, Aug. 12, 1913.

     

    227“I do not profess to have any expert knowledge of teeth,”见: Smith, G. E. 1916. Discussion. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 9 (Odontological Section):56-58.

     

    228“I was extremely skeptical of the interpretation; for it seems to be utterly impossible that a creature so susceptible to the effects of climatic changes as an anthropoid ape could have made the journey to America,”见:Smith, G. E. The Earliest Man? Evidence of Primitive Migration. May 23, 1922.

     

    229 “It may seem hazardous to base such far-reaching conclusions on the evidence of a single tooth,” 见:Smith, G. E. The Earliest Man? An American Discovery. Times, May 20, 1922.

     

    230“Such investigations have been made by perhaps the most experienced authorities on fossil teeth.” “these American savants’ authority in such matters is unquestionable.”出处同上。

     

    231“I happen to know that Dr. Matthew and Dr. Gregory, whose authority and practical experience in such matters is unrivalled,”见:Smith, G. E. The Earliest Man? Evidence of Primitive Migration. May 23, 1922.

     

    232Smith, G. E. The Nebraska Tooth: How to Utilize the Accident. Times, Feb. 21, 1925.

     

    233Lyne, W. C. The Nebraska Tooth. Times, Feb. 27, 1925.

     

    234Lyne, W. C. 1916. The Significance of the Radiographs of the Piltdown Teeth. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 9(Odontological Section): 33–51.

     

    235】亦明:《方舟子早在1995年就抄袭MSU教授的英文文章,虹桥科教论坛,2010-10-14 06:00:54

     

    236】“Root-Bernstein博士污蔑我从新语丝拿工资发博文、我的文章90%是其论文内容、我逐字照抄其文字和例子(其实我已做恰当的改写并举自己的例子)、我剽窃其论文和侵犯其版权,全是谣言,他授权‘方学家’诋毁我,我不起诉他已算客气,他还敢扬言告我?这是我对该事件最后表态,以后有人再问一概拉黑。”见方舟子新浪微博:2011-8-22 22:42

     

    237】“于是他无视二者表述上的细微差别(比如我更准确地指的是平均数),断定我那句话出自贾士荣的文章。”见:方舟子:《玉米花粉的妄想狂笑话》,新语丝2007124日新到资料。

     

    238】方舟子:《剽窃的层次》,《环球》20051555页;见新语丝200581日新到资料。

     

    239】“这网上,能让人读得下去的文章无非两类:掐架的和炫耀才学的。”见:方舟子:《乌鸦词和名女人》,《方舟子杂文》,新语丝网站。

     

    240】方舟子:《关于中国科大的现状和未来》,新语丝2000131日新到资料。注:“一等一的全才”是方舟子中科大校友、著名方粉王艳红(网名“碧声”)谎称是网友对方舟子的赞颂之词。见:王艳红:《方舟在线——网络斗士方舟子访谈》,新语丝2000725日新到资料。

     

    241方舟子:《如何避免学术不端行为》,2007214日《中国青年报》;见新语丝2007214日新到资料。

     

    242方舟子:《“方舟子抄袭颖河”一事再说几句》,新语丝200723日新到资料;新语丝读书论坛:2012-07-26 05:12:37

     

    243】方舟子:《智力正常地解决“编译”问题——答复旦大学医学院公共卫生学院副教授边建超》,新语丝20011011日新到资料。

     

    244】“这位《东方企业家》执行主编居然把注射疫苗视同谋杀,即便如此,首恶也是卫生部和世界卫生组织,只敢把其无知的愤恨发泄到一个不过是在普及科学界主流观点的科普作家身上,血口喷人,装什么好汉?”见:方舟子的新浪微博,2010-9-25 13:54

     

    245】亦明:《方舟子四年前曾抄袭一家英国医学院学报》,虹桥科教论坛,20101121日。

     

    246】亦明:《方舟子与〈中国青年报〉邪恶同盟的终结当一个无知被捧为全知(之三)》,中国学术评价网,20111111日。

     

    247】亦明:《方老偷,还在偷──给〈新华每日电讯〉总编辑解国记先生的第四封公开信》,中国学术评价网,20121112日。

     

    248】亦明:《方氏文贼的方式科唬──给〈新华每日电讯〉的第八封公开信》,中国学术评价网,20141129日。

     

    249】路甬祥:《纪念达尔文》,《科学文化评论》200945-12页。

     

    250李云芳:《“冰桶挑战”——玩转微博公益的新实践》,见谢毅主编:《年度音视频经典案例选粹 2015年》,暨南大学出版社2015年版42-55页。

     

    251】费伟伟、赵鹏:《福建基础夯实稳中求进》,201263日《人民日报》。

     

    252】胡慧敏:《云霄假烟云散烟消了吗》,《福建质量信息》200247-10页。

     

    253】高老头:《清华学位授予能否走出黑暗》,新语丝2002620日新到资料。

     

    254】大洋彼岸的绅士:《证据确凿:方舟子造谣诽谤习近平》,大洋彼岸的绅士的新浪博客,2012-10-04 08:09:16亦明:《方舟子2014年十大要闻·二、溷兮龟来,螃蟹蛤蟆》,中国学术评价网,20141230日。

     

    255】佚名:《福建云霄恶名远扬 制假烟落下个穷》,2002314日《中国消费者报》。

     

    256】佚名:《打假英雄、打假办主任、技监局局长方镇山卸任刚十天住宅遭爆炸》,《城市技术监督》2000115页;本刊编辑部:《坚决声援打假卫士──兼亲切慰问原云霄县技监局局长方镇山同志》,《城市技术监督》2000115页。

     

    257】杨阳腾:《“打假办”主任缘何假打》,《广西质量监督导报》2001517-18页;福建省云霄县人民检察院:《分析特点 剥去伪装 力克堡垒——查处云霄县原技术监督局局长方镇山放纵制售伪劣商品犯罪行为罪的做法》,见:最高人民检察院渎职侵权检察厅编:《渎职侵权罪案侦查经验点评》,当代世界出版社2002年版539-544页。

     

    258】见赵嘉敏的新浪微博:2011-1-8 10:50

     

    259见方舟子的新浪微博:2011-1-8 17:38

     

    260Estrelita:《方舟子:我是一个对真相有洁癖的人》,《福建人》20141024-30页。

     

    261亦明:《方舟子2011年十大要闻》,中国学术评价网,20111229日。


    屏蔽 举报回复
  • 亦明_:六、注释

    六、注释

     

    1】方舟子:《我的经典》,《新语丝》月刊,19994期。

     

    2方舟子的所作所为,其最初动机和最终目的都不过是名利二字。而他选择的道路,就是靠打成名,靠名谋利。见:亦明:《方舟子2012年十大要闻》,中国学术评价网,20121225日。另见:亦明:《文史畸才方舟子》、《科唬作家方舟子》。

     

    3】方舟子:“最佳”诗人》,作于1996125日;见新语丝网站《方舟子诗文集·方舟子杂文》。

     

    4方舟子:《天下文女一大抄,作于19951017日;见新语丝网站《方舟子诗文集·方舟子杂文》。

     

    5】详见亦明:文史畸才方舟子第三篇,《“偷”出来的历史学家》。

     

    6】庄周:《齐人物论(续一)》,《书屋》2000年第924-30页。

     

    7】庄周:《齐人物论:百年散文大盘点(续一》,新语丝2000105日新到资料;USTC:《我所知道的网络写家(1——方舟子》,新语丝读书论坛,2002-08-02 21:31:05;李发文:《我所知道的网络写家方舟子》,新语丝200283日新到资料。注:USTC是方舟子在新语丝上的马甲。

     

    8Dobzhansky, T. 1973. Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution. The American Biology Teacher 35(3):125-129.

     

    9Barras, C. We Have Still not Found the Missing Link between Us and Apes. www.bbc.com, May 18, 2017.

     

    10Anonymous. The Earliest man? A Skull “Millions of Years Old.” The Manchester Guardian, Nov. 21, 1912.

     

    11Anonymous.1912. Notes. Nature 90(2249):3390.

     

    12“the most important discovery of its kind hitherto made in England.” Anonymous. 1912. Palæolithic Man. Nature 90(2251):438.

     

    13“This ill-begotten form of primitive man in the several hundred papers devoted to him received nearly as much attention as all the legitimate specimens in the fossil record put together.”见:Weiner, J. S. The Piltdown Forgery. London, University of Oxford Press, 1955. p.204.

     

    14】方舟子:《驳斥〈华夏文摘〉的反进化论谣言》,新语丝1999627日新到资料。

     

    15】方舟子:《错把业余当专业--关于“《国家地理杂志》古化石骗局”》,新语丝2000531日新到资料。

     

    16】柯南:《真相永远只有一个·辟尔唐人的骗局》,新语丝2001514日。注:该文首发地址是网易的“科学大观论坛,时间是2001-03-17 00:04:38;文尾有这样一句话:“柯南的习作,请大家指正:)”。

     

    17】方舟子此文于2008623日以《“皮尔当人”骗局——科学史上著名公案(9)》为题在《经济观察报》首发;两天后被方舟子以《科学史上著名公案——“皮尔当人”骗局》为题在新语丝网站公布。2009年,该文被方舟子以《“皮尔当人”骗局》为题收入自己的文集《爱因斯坦相信上帝吗?——方舟子解读科学史著名谜团》一书。该文还曾以不同标题在中国多家报刊上重复发表,如《教师博览》200811期、《飞碟探索》200812期、《青年博览》200818 、《意林》200820期、《科技信息》201212A期、《人物汇报》201228期、2012922日《城市商报》、2012926日《重庆日报》,等等。

     

    18】见新语丝读书论坛:2009-04-24 04:58:54

     

    19】方舟子:《皮尔当人骗局》,《飞碟探索》20081245-46

     

    20】戴清:《皮尔当人:英国绅士背后的虚荣》,《飞碟探索》20071036-37页。

     

    21】余英时:《〈周礼〉考证和〈周礼〉的现代启示——金春峯〈周官之成书及其反映的文化与时代新考〉序》,《中国文化》19902174-183页。

     

    22】田汝康:《辟尔当人头骨——英国资产阶级科学界的骗局》,1954610日《光明日报》;李沨:《“辟尔当人”的秘密》,《科学通报》1954566-67页;夏鼐:《“辟尔当人”疑案的解决及其教训》,《科学通报》1954854-56页。

     

    23】见:裴文中:《第二次大战前后世界各地对于人类化石的研究——中国科学院古脊椎动物研究室丙种专刊第一号》,中国科学院1954年版12-14页。

     

    24】中华书局辞海编辑所编:《辞海试行本》第13分册,中华书局1961年版67页。

     

    25】董枝明:《曙人与资产阶级的伪科学》,《化石》1975122页。

     

    26】佚名:《为什么说“曙人”事件是个骗局》,《十万个为什么》第19册,上海人民出版社1976年版118-121页。

     

    27】吴汝康:《古人类史上最使人迷惑的一幕——皮尔唐的科学骗局》。《世界科技研究与发展》1996C1134-138页;吴汝康:《科学史上一场最大的骗局——皮尔唐人化石》,《人类学学报》1997143-54页。

     

    28Walsh, J. E. Unraveling Piltdown: The Science Fraud of the Century and Its Solution. New York, NY: Random House, 1996.

     

    29Shermer, M.  The Great Bone Hoax. Los Angeles Times, Sep. 22, 1996.

     

    30Shermer, M. The Great Bone Hoax: Piltdown and the Self-Correcting Nature of Science. In:  The Borderlands of Science: Where Sense Meets Nonsense. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2001. pp.307-320.

     

    31】详见维基百科“Michael Shermer”词条。(阅读日期:2020629日。)

     

    32Mouallem, O.Making a Living of Bullshit Detecting. VUE Weekly, August 28, 2008.

     

    33】方舟子:《为什么人们相信怪异的事情》,200115日《科学时报·读书周刊》;见新语丝200116日新到资料。

     

    34Michael Shermer针灸出来的漏洞》,新语丝2009518日新到资料。

     

    35】亦明:《方舟子与〈中国青年报〉邪恶同盟的终结·当一个无知被捧为全知》,中国学术评价网,2011112日。

     

    36】本文引用的方舟子《“皮尔当”骗局》一文的文字全部来自新语丝网页:《科学史上著名公案——“皮尔当人”骗局》,新语丝2008年6月25日新到资料。不再说明。

     

    37】方舟子:《多维新闻网剽窃的铁证》,新语丝2000410日新到资料。

     

    38“It is not, however, at all clear from the surviving correspondence when Woodward first saw the cranial fragments, though judging from letter 1.2.4 and 1.2.5 it was not until late May (see 1.2.8).”见:Spencer, F. The Piltdown Papers, 1908-1955: The Correspondence and Other Documents Relating to the Piltdown Forgery. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1990. p.19.

     

    39“As this indicates the Piltdown cranial fragments were not at this time in Woodward’s possession. In fact it appears that Woodward did not see these remains until at least 24 May [1.2.8].”见:The Piltdown Papers, p.21.

     

    40Some time tomorrow (Friday), probably after lunch, I will bring the piece of skull and a few odds and ends found with it, or near it, in the gravel bed.” 见:The Piltdown Papers, p.22.

     

    41The Piltdown Papers, p.203.

     

    42“It was Tuesday, February 15, 1912, a date the keeper would have cause to remember. ……Already on his desk was the day's first mail, and he began flipping through the envelopes, occasionally opening and reading one. When a cancellation from the Sussex town of Lewes caught his eye he easily recognized the small, assured handwriting of the address. It was from his friend Charles Dawson, a solicitor by profession but an amateur geologist and antiquarian of some standing.”见:Walsh, J. E. Unraveling Piltdown: The Science Fraud of the Century and Its Solution. New York, NY: Random House, 1996. p.12.

     

    43“In May, Woodward was given his first look at the discovery itself when Dawson came up to London on business. Visiting his friend in his office at the museum on the afternoon of May 23, he unwrapped a small package on the desk. ‘How's that for Heidelberg!’ he called out happily.” 见:Unraveling Piltdown, p.14.

     

    44方舟子:《虚妄的“人体革命”——评吴伯林〈人体革命--基因科学能使您活150岁》,2000111《中华读书报》。见新语丝2000112日新到资料。

     

    45Dawson, C. & Woodward, AS. 1915. On a Bone Implement from Piltdown (Sussex). Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 71:144-149.

     

    46】见:《人物专访:方舟子论基督教》,新语丝1999910日新到资料。

     

    47Harter, R. Piltdown Man: The Bogus Bones Caper. talkorigins.org,首发时间不详。

     

    48Dalrymple, G. B. The Age of the Earth. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994. pp.15-17.

     

    49“more than twenty-six millions of years must have elapsed during their formation.”见:Sollas, W. J. 1900. Address of the President of the Section of Geology of the British Association. I. Evolutional Geology. Science 12(307):745-756. 关于更新世的年代估计,见:Sollas, W. J. 1900. Address of the President of the Section of Geology of the British Association. II. Obscure Chapter in the Earth’s History. Science 12(308):787-796.  “more than twenty-six millions of years must have elapsed during their formation.”见:Sollas, W. J. 1909. Address of the President of the Section of Geology of the British Association. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 65:1-cxxii.

     

    50“some few hundred thousand years ago.”见:Pycraft, W. P. 1913. Ape-Man or Modern Man? The Two Piltdown Skull Reconstructions. The Illustrated London News 143(3883):444.

     

    51Keith, A. 1913. Modern Problems Relating to the Antiquity of Man. Nature 90(2240):268-271.

     

    52Langdon, J. H. 1991. Misinterpreting Piltdown. Current Anthropology 32(5):627-631.

     

    53“Dr. Woodward, replying to a question as to the approximate date of the skull, told a reporter that it belonged to the Lower Pleistocene period, which could not be computed in terms of years. ”见:Anonymous. Paleolithic Skull Is a Missing LinkHuman Remains Found in England Similar in Some Details to Chimpanzee. New York Times, Dec.19, 1912.

     

    54“It cannot be measured in years only by the sequence of geological events and by the changes in animal life.”见:【51】。

     

    55Wells, H.G. The Outline of History. Vol. I. New York, NY: MacMillan Co., 1920. p.70.

     

    56Anonymous. 1915. Notes. Nature 95(2376):297-300.

     

    57F. L. 1915. Science & Natural History . The Illustrated London News 146(3970):672.

     

    58Mackenzie, L. 1922. Science and Citizenship. The Sociological Review 14(1):39-50.

     

    59Montagu, A. An Introduction to Physical Anthropology. Springfield, IL: Thomas, 1960. p.226.

     

    59“Of very great antiquity, perhaps of 500,000 B. C., are the fragment of a skull (2) discovered at Piltdown, England.”见:Osborn, H. F. 1920. The Hall of the Age of Man in the American Museum. Natural History 20(3):229-246.(注:在1914年的一个讲座中,奥斯本说,当时关于皮尔当人年代的估计,在10万年和30万年之间。“The Piltdown man of Sussex, England. Antiquity variously estimated at 100,000 to 300,000 years.”见:Osborn, H. F. Men of the Old Stone Age: Their Environment, Life, and Art. New York, NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1915. p.145.

     

    60Osborn, H. F. 1921. The Ancestry of Man: Stone Age Skulls and Their Story. The Illustrated London News 158(4264):40-43; Osborn, H. F. 1921. The Hall of the Age of Man in the American Museum. Nature 107(2686):236–240.

     

    61“Modern science is able to estimate the age of man who made implements and fire and his immediate predecessors, at approximately five hundred thousand years.”见:Our earliest Ancestor——The Dawn Man: An authorized interview by Hugh Weir with Henry Fairfield Osborn and William King Gregory. McClure's Magazine 55(1):19-28.

     

    62】例见:Moir, J. R. 1926. Where Did Man Originate? The Illustrated London News, Oct. 30, 1926, p.820,850; Keith, A. Foreword to Woodward, A. S. Earliest Englishman. London, UK: Watts & Co., 1948. p.ix-xiii.

     

    63Davenport, C. B. Traces Evolution by Elephant Teeth: Dr. H.F. Osborn Tells of Gauge "Proving" Man's Ancestry 1,000,000 Years Ago. New York Times, Apr. 26, 1931.

     

    64Kuhn, F. Jr. Piltdown Man Marks Dawn of Human Race, Osborn Says, Contradicting Present Views. New York Times, Sept. 29, 1931.

     

    65“the dates assigned to it range spaciously from 1,000,000 to 125,000 b.c.”见:Durrant, W. The Story of Civilization: Part I. Our Oriental Heritage. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster, 1935. p.92.

     

    66“a dawn man who stalked the earth 100,000 to 600,000 years ago.”见:PILTDOWN MAN BRANDED AS FAKE: CHEMICAL TESTS SHOW FAMED JAWBONE IS That of Ape, British Scientists Report. Los Angeles Times, Nov 22, 1953; Experts Make Monkey of Piltdown Man: Slay Old Belief with Jawbone of Ape. Chicago Daily Tribune, Nov 22, 1953; Piltdown Man Exposed as Scientific Fake. Washington Post, Nov 22, 1953.

     

    67In addition, it is said that the cap of the skull is genuine but, far more recent than had been bellieved-50,000 instead of 500,000 years old.”见:Hillary, J. Piltdown Man Hoax Is Exposed; Jaw an Ape's, Skull Fairly Recent. New York Times, Nov. 22, 1953.

     

    68“In every way Piltdown man provided a fuller picture of the stage of ancestry which man had reached perhaps some 500,000 years ago.”见:Weiner, J. S. 1955. One of the World's Most Amazing Hoaxes. The Illustrated London News 226(6048):498; Weiner, J. S. The Piltdown Forgery. London, University of Oxford Press, 1955. p.2.

     

    69“but surprisingly they appeared to be much younger than was originally thought -- perhaps only 50,000 instead of 500,000 years old.”见:Anonymous. Piltdown Man Is Revealed as Fake. WGBH, 1998.

     

    70】谢真元、门岿编著:《科学家的遗憾》,天津科技翻译出版公司1998年版108-110页。

     

    71】树人:《揭示科学界的20大骗局》,《报林》20061266-70页;何京:《震惊世界的十大科学欺骗》,《科学24小时》2007513-15页。

     

     

    72Anonymous. Dr. Kenneth Oakley: Exposure of Piltdown Hoax. Times, Nov. 5, 1981.

     

    73Weiner, J. S, Oakley, K. P, & Le Gros Clark, W. E. 1953. The Solution of the Piltdown Problem. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Geology 2:139–146.

     

    74“In November, 1953, The Times published evidence gathered by Kenneth Page Oakley, a professor of anthropology from Oxford University demonstrating that the fossil was a composite of three distinct species.”见:英文维基百科“Piltdown Man”词条2008615日版。(阅读日期:2020629日。)

     

    75Goodrum, M. R. and Olson, C. 2009. The Quest for an Absolute Chronology in Human Prehistory: Anthropologists, Chemists and the Fluorine Dating Method in Palaeoanthropology. The British Journal for the History of Science 42(1):95-114.

     

    76Middleton, J. 1845. On Fluorine in Bones, Its Source, and Its Application to the Determination of the Geological Age of Fossil Bones. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 1:214-216.

     

    77Carnot, A. 1892. The Determination of Fluorine. The Chemical News and Journal of Physical Science 65(1691):198-199; Carnot, A . 1892. Recherche du Fluor dans les os modernes et les os Fossiles. Comptes Rendus de L ' Academie des Sciences  114(4):1189-1192.

     

    78Cook, S. F. and Heizer, R. F. 1947. The Quantitative Investigation of Aboriginal Sites: Analyses of Human Bone. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 5(2):201-219.

     

    79Oakley, K. P. 1948. Fluorine and the Relative Dating of Bones. Advancement of Science 4: 336–337.

     

    80It has long been known that fossil bones accumulate fluorine in the course of time.见:Oakley, K.P. & Hoskins, R. C. 1950. New Evidence on the Antiquity of Piltdown Man. Nature 165(4193):379-382.

     

    81“Kenneth Oakley had discovered a long neglected paper published in 1892 by the French mineralogist, Adolphe Carnot, on the absorption of fluorine by fossil bones as a function of age.”见:Ellis, L. Archaeological Method and Theory: An Encyclopedia. New York, NY: Garland Publishing, Inc., 2000. p.219.

     

    82Piltdown Papers, p.181, 183.

     

    83“Eventually, in the 40s and 50s, more advanced dating technologies, such as the fluorine absorption test, scientifically proved that this skull was actually a fraud.” 见:英文维基百科“Piltdown Man”词条2008615日版。(阅读日期:2020629日。)

     

    84“it does not provide a means of close relative dating.”见:Oakley, K. P. 1949. Some Applications of the Fluorine Test. The Archaeological News Letter 2(7):101–103.

     

    85“It is a mistake to suppose that the fluorine content of a fossil bone provides a direct indication of its geological, or R.3, age.”见:Oakley, K. P. Dating Fossil Human Remains. In:  A.L. Kroeber (ed.), Anthropology Today: An Encyclopedic Inventory. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1953. pp.43-56.

     

    86“With the co-operation of the Department of the Government Chemist, the British Museum (Nat. Hist.) has had all the available Piltdown material tested for fluorine.”见:Oakley, K. P. 1949. Some Applications of the Fluorine Test. The Archaeological News Letter 2(7):101–103.

     

    87“less than 100,000 years ago.”见:Oakley, K. P. 1950. Relative Dating of the Piltdown Skull I. Advancement of Science 6:343-344.

     

    88“the last warm interglacial period.”见:Oakley, K. P. & Hoskins, R. C. 1950. New Evidence on the Antiquity of Piltdown Man. Nature 165(4193):379-382.

     

    89In 1950 when a chemical dating test convinced Dr. Kenneth Oakley, British Museum geologist, that the remains were only 50,000 years old instead of a half- million.”见:Berger, C. 1956. Piltdown Hoax: a Fabulous Tale of Faking Came to Light. Popular Science 168(4):121-123.

     

    90“At a Wenner-Gren International Symposium in June 1952, Oakley told his colleagues that Piltdown Man had lived not a million years ago, as Osborn had estimated; not even 200,000 years ago, Keith's estimate; but only about 50,000 years ago. But Eoanthropus had lived.”见:Blinderman, C. The Piltdown Inquest. Prometheus Books, 1986. p.67.

     

    91“the deliberately cautious estimate,”“By Writing ‘probably at least’ Oakley meant to suggest the very minimum.”见:Montagu, A.  A Part of Man's Story. New York Times, Nov. 8, 1953.

     

    92】亦明:《方舟子与陈章良》,天涯社区关天茶舍,2008-01-29 00:47:54

     

    93】亦明:《情到滥发即荒唐——评方舟子〈功到雄奇即罪名》,天涯社区关天茶舍,2009-08-18 22:13:04

     

    94Weiner, J. S. The Piltdown Forgery. London, University of Oxford Press, 1955. pp.26-28.

     

    95】吴汝康:《科学史上一场最大的骗局——皮尔唐人化石》,《人类学学报》1997143-54页。

     

    96】方舟子:《科学院院士也当“王铭铭”》,新语丝2003921日新到资料。

     

    97“The results of the fluorine test have considerably increased the probability that the mandible and cranium represent a single creature.”见:Oakley, K. P. 1950. Relative Dating of the Piltdown Skull. Advancement of Science 6: 343–344.

     

    98“I am not sure whether the fact that Piltdown teeth have been slightly abraded by the action of river sand will make their surfaces difficult to interpret.”见:Oakley, K. P. Letter to David Scott. Dec. 22, 1950. Piltdown Papers, p.192.

     

    99“In the first edition of ‘Man the Tool-Maker’ p.70, I risked hinting that the ‘bone implement’ was a forgery!”见:Oakley, K. P. Letter to Le Gros Clark. Aug. 12, 1953. Piltdown Papers, p.199.

     

    100“It was not till one of us (J. S.W,) in the course of personal discussions put forward this proposition fairly and squarely as the only possible solution of the Piltdown puzzle, pointed out that the organic content of the mandible had never been examined, and moreover demonstrated experimentally that artificial abrasion of the teeth of a chimpanzee combined with appropriate staining produced an appearance astonishingly similar to the Piltdown molars and canine, that we decided on a critical re-study of all the Piltdown material with this specific possibility directly in view.”见:Weiner, J. S, Oakley, K. P, & Le Gros Clark, W. E.1953. The Solution of the Piltdown Problem. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Geology 2:139146.

     

    101“But because of the eventual significance of the fluorine testing it has come to be thought by many that Oakley was the prime mover in the Piltdown exposure. In the event, though he was throughout enthusiastic, assiduous, unremittant and careful, his role was essentially supportive and collaborative. The essential credit for exposing the fraud, and by so doing, clarifying our whole understanding of morphological trends in human evolution, must lie primarily with J. S. Weiner.”见:Harrison, G. A. 1983. J.S. Weiner and the Piltdown forgery. Antiquity 57 (219):46-48.

     

    102“Then, in 1949, Kenneth P. Oakley applied his fluorine test to the Piltdown remains. ……Both the skull and jaw of Piltdown contained barely detectable amounts of fluorine, they could not have lain long in the gravels. Oakley still did not suspect fakery. He proposed that Piltdown, after all, had been a relatively recent interment into ancient gravels…….But a few years later, in collaboration with J.S. Weiner and W.E. le Gros Clark, Oakley finally considered the obvious alternative-that the ‘interment’ had been made in this century with intent to defraud.”见:Gould, S. J. 1979. Piltdown Revisited. Natural History 88(3):86-97.

     

    103Anonymous. Piltdown Man Forgery: Jaw and Tooth of Modern Ape, “Eleborate Hoax.”. Times, November 21, 1953.

     

    104Hillary, J. Piltdown Man Hoax Is Exposed: Jaw an Ape's, Skull Fairly Recent. New York Times Nov. 22, 1953.

     

    105Oakley, K. P. & Weiner, J. S. 1953. Chemical Examination of the Piltdown Implements. Nature 172(4389):1110.

     

    106Weiner, J. S. et al. 1955. Further Contributions to the Solution of the Piltdown Problem. Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Geology 2(6): 225-287.

     

    107De Vries, H. and Oakley, K. P. 1959. Radiocarbon Dating of the Piltdown Skull and Jaw. Nature 184(4682):224–226.

     

    108】李佐忠:《年龄的铁证》,《课外学习》1982145-48页。

     

    109】刘华杰:《网上再访方舟子》,2000221日《科学时报》;见新语丝200033日新到资料。

     

    110方舟子:《进化新篇章》,湖南教育出版社2000年版204页。

     

    111Anonymous. Piltdown Man Hoax: Protest against “Attacks.” Times, Nov. 26, 1953.

     

    112“rather sad but exceedingly interesting,”“Prof. Hergert Fleure, 76-year-old anthropological authority, said it was "a very clever deception by someone with some scientific knowledge--perhaps a student who wanted to play a practical joke.'”见:AP. ‘Rather Sad,' Professor Says. New York Times, Nov. 23, 1953; Anonymous. Practical Joke Suspected in Piltdown Hoax: Scientists Believe Skull’s Finder Was Duped. Washington Post, Nov. 23, 1953.

     

    113Anonymous. 1961. Mermaids, the Piltdown Skull and Other Curious or Brilliant Hoaxes. The Illustrated London News 238(6340):175.

     

    114Stringer, C. 2012. The 100-year Mystery of Piltdown Man: Chris Stringer Explains Why the Longest-running Whodunnit in Palaeontology Is Still Worth Solving.  Nature 492(7428): 177-179.

     

    115“attempts to discover ‘whodunnit’ in this mystery have somewhat obscured a far more important question in the history of anthropology, namely, what could have led so many eminent scientists to embrace such a forgery?”见:Hammond, M. 1979 A Framework of Plausibility for an Anthropological Forgery: The Piltdown Case. Anthropology 3(1/2):47-58.

     

    116“it makes me angry to see the amount of effort that has been frittered away on this trivial whodunit.”见:Bowler, P. J. 1987. Review of The Piltdown Inquest by Charles Blinderman. Isis 78 (3):459.

     

    117“What Piltdown raises, as the archetypal scientific fraud, are questions about the scientific process: How does fraud work? What structures exist in science to prevent its detection?”见:Marks, J. M. 1992. Review of Frank Spencer’s Piltdown: A Scientific Forgery and The Piltdown Papers. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 87(3):376-381.

     

    118“the scientific method must still be considerably short of perfection.”见:Anonymous. The Piltdown Man. Washington Post, Nov. 23, 1953. p.12.

     

    119Halstead, L B. The Piltdown Hoax. Times, Nov. 25, 1978.

     

    120Broad, W. and Wade, N. Betrayers of the Truth: Fraud and Deceit in the Halls of Science. Simon & Schuster, 1982. pp.119-123.

     

    121“It now turns out that all the Piltdown remains were stained with the same chemical recipe, one that was invented by Hinton.”见:Gee, H. 1996. Box of Bones 'Clinches' Identity of Piltdown Palaeontology Hoaxer. Nature 381(6580):261–262.

     

    122“Crucially, analyses of the contents of Hinton's trunk by Currant and Gardiner show that they are enriched in iron as well as manganese–in the same proportions as in the Piltdown specimens.”出处同上。

     

    123... all specimens were also analysed for manganese which was found to be absent in all cases down to the sensitivity limits of the apparatus.”“It is not clear to me why apatite ( calcium phosphate) should be turned into gypsum ( calcium sulphate) by treatment with chromic acid.”见:Hall, E.T. 1996. Riddle of the Tenth Man. Nature 381 (6585):728.

     

    124“The case against Hinton is not what it seems. The motive suggested by Gardiner (a quarrel about money) does not work because of timing; the incident in question happened in 1911; the first finds were in 1908. More importantly the chemical analyses do not match. The Hinton samples include Manganese; the Piltdown specimens do not. The Hinton samples do not contain gypsum (produced from the organic material); the Piltdown specimens do. [Drawhorn, correspondence]. Walsh notes that there were legitimate reasons for Hinton to have this material, including doing tests for Oakley. In any event it would have been physically impossible for Hinton to have been the sole hoaxer because he did not have the requisite access to the site in the 1912-1914 period.”见:Harter, R. Piltdown Man: The Bogus Bones Caper. talkorigins.org

     

    125Gardiner B. G. and Currant A. 1996. The Piltdown Hoax Who Done It. Linnean Society of London, Burlington House.

     

    126“Contrary to the results of E. Hall (unpublished PhD thesis) our flame absorption analysis showed manganese to be present in all the bones tested. E592 (right parietal) 252ppm; E644 Barkham Mills skull 443ppm;E615 (cricket bat) 431ppm.”见:Gardiner, B. G. The Piltdown Forgery: A Re-statement of the Case against Hinton. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 139(3): 315–335.

     

    127“Although gypsum was not present in E615 (‘cricket bat’) or any of the bones in the trunk, gypsum was found in the human teeth from the tobacco tin donated by Hinton’s executor.”出处同上。

     

    128talkorigins.org那篇网文的作者名叫理查德·哈特尔(Richard Harter)。根据一份讣告,他生于1935年,死于2012年,三十岁时从南达科他州立大学获得数学学士学位。根据该网站网友的回忆,他从上世纪八十年代初起就在这个网站“捍卫科学和进化论、反击神创论(Richard was a staunch defender of science and evolution and a vocal opponent of stupidity (aka creationism))。(Moran, L. A. Richard Harter 1935–2012. sandwalk.blogspot.com, June 13, 2012.)但可惜的是,和方舟子一样,这个“科学卫士”在学术界和科学界一文不名。(见维基百科:Talk:Piltdown Man.阅读日期:2020629日。)

     

    129江晓原:《需要这样的“学术警察”》,2001年5月30日《中华读书报》;见新语丝2001年5月30日新到资料。

     

     

    130方舟子:《进化新篇章》,湖南教育出版社2000年版283页;见《〈进化新篇章〉后记》,新语丝2001414日新到资料。

     

    131】刘华杰:《网上访科学/人文两栖学人方舟子》,2000221日《科学时报》;见新语丝200029日新到资料。

     

    132】刘菊花:《网络奇才方舟子》,新语丝2001728日新到资料;刘菊花:《读〈溃疡——直面中国学术腐败〉》,2001718日《工人日报》,新语丝2001728日新到资料。

     

    133】关于方舟子的“科学哲学”和“科学史”根底,详见亦明《方舟子与〈中国青年报》邪恶同盟的终结》相关章节。

     

    134“As a narrative story, the Piltdown discovery-a big brain atop an apelike jaw -fit the scientific and cultural expectations of the day in that it conveniently supported the prevailing theory (read ‘hope’) that humans first evolved a big brain and only later such features as bipedalism and tool use. Afterall, it was argued, it was our singular ability to think in abstract ways, to plot and strategize and communicate complex ideas, that allowed us, in this progressivist model, to take the great leap forward in evolution above and beyond our simian an­cestors. Their bodies may have been similar, but their brains were not. Exceptional encephalization was what set us apart.”见:【30】。

     

    135】方舟子:《猿怎样变成了人》,新语丝之友,2000-01-10 16:04:44

     

    136】方舟子:《寻找“缺环”》,新语丝之友,2000-01-19 14:24:55。注:周国兴在1980年写道:“当时有一个传统见解,认为人脑的发展先于人体的其他部分。爪哇直立猿人长期得不到承认,也正是因为它和这个观念相抵触。当时北京人的头盖骨和文化遗物还没有发现,这一观念还没有被触动。再加上当时那个伪造的所谓‘曙人’正在英国大肆宣传,而‘曙人’正是有一个大脑袋的所谓‘最早的人’。既然这样,说小脑袋的塔昂幼儿居然能够直立行走,怎么可能呢?”(见:周国兴:《人怎样认识自己的起源 人类起源研究史话(下)》,中国青年出版社1980年版34页。)周氏说“人脑的发展先于人体的其他部分”是“一个传统见解”,并不确切;将爪哇人得不到承认完全归之于“它和这个观念相抵触”,也与史书所载不符。见:Marsh, O. C. 1896. The Ape-Man from the Tertiary of Java.Science 3(74):789-793; Theunissen, L.T. Eugène Dubois and the Ape-Man from Java: The History of the First ‘Missing Link’ and Its Discoverer. Dordrecht, NL: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1989. Pp.79-126; Gould, S. J. 1990. Men of the Thirty-third Division. Natural History 90(4):12-24; Reader, J. Missing Links: In Search of Human Origins. Oxford. UK: Oxford University Press, 2011. pp.131-135.

     

    137】方舟子:《进化新篇章》,湖南教育出版社2000年版216页。

     

    138】古尔德的这篇文章有三个版本,各版本间略有差异。这三个版本分别是:1. Gould, S. J. 1979. Piltdown Revisited. Natural History 88(3):86-97; 2. Gould, S. J. 1979. Smith Woodward's Folly. New Scientist 82(1149):42-44; 3. Gould, S. J. 1979. Piltdown Revisited. In: The Panda's Thumb: More Reflections in Natural History. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Co., 1980. pp.108-124.

     

    139“A human cranium with an ape's jaw strikes us today as sufficiently incongruous to merit strong suspicion. Not so in 1913. At that time, many leading paleontologists maintained an a priori preference largely cultural in origin, for "brain primacy" in human evolution. The argument rested on a false inference from contemporary importance to historical priority: We rule today by virtue of our intelligence. Therefore, in our evolution, an enlarged brain must have preceded and inspired all other alterations of our body. We should expect to find human ancestors with enlarged, perhaps nearly modern, brains and a distinctly simian body.”见:Gould, S. J. The Panda's Thumb: More Reflections in Natural History. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Co., 1980. pp.116-117.

     

    140“That his brain had advanced more rapidly than his face and jaw was precisely in accord with current ideas.”见:Weiner, J. S. The Piltdown Forgery. London, University of Oxford Press, 1955. p.6.

     

    141方舟子:《科学普及塑造第一科技强国》,19991215《中华读书报》。见新语丝1999年12月16日新到资料。

     

    142亦明:《创作、翻译、编译、还是抄袭?——评方舟子的〈“智商”的误区〉》,光明网,2011-01-26 16:23:43

     

    143方舟子新浪微博,2011-8-23 00:16

     

    144】Gould, S. J. 1979. Piltdown Revisited. Natural History 88(3):86-97.

     

    145Gould, S. J. 1975. Posture Maketh the Man. Natural History 84(9):38-40, 44.

     

    146Anonymous. 1937. Sir Grafton Elliot Smith, F. R. S. Nature 139(3506):57–60;  Young, M. 1937. Sir Grafton Elliot Smith, M. A., M. D., F. R. S., Litt. D., D. Sc., F. R. C. P. Man 37(3):51-53; Anonymous. Sir Grafton Elliot Smith: Pioneer Work in Anthropology. Times, Jan. 2, 1937.

     

    147Smith, G.E. 1912. The British Association at Dundee: Section H.: Anthropology: Opening Address. Nature 90(2239):118-126; Smith, G.E. Presidential Address. Report of the 82nd Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Dundee, 1912, September 4-11. London, UK: John Murray, 1913. pp.575-598.

     

    148“So far from being an impossible combination of characters, this association of brain and simian features, is precisely what I anticipated in my address to the British Association at Dundee.”见:Smith, G. E. 1913. The Piltdown Skull. Nature 92(2292):131.

     

    149“The growth of the brain preceded the refinement of the features and of the somatic characters in general.”见:Smith, G. E. 1913. Preliminary Report on the Cranial Cast. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London 69:145-147.

     

    150“it was the growth of the brain that first brought an ape to man’s estate.”见:Smith, G. E. 1914. The Significance of the Discovery at Piltdown. Bedrock: A Quarterly Journal of Scientific Thought 3(1): 1-17.

     

    151“The outstanding interest of the Piltdown skull is the confirmation it affords of the view that in the evolution of man the brain led the way. It is the veriest truism that man has emerged from the simian state in virtue of the enrichment of the structure of his mind. It is singular that so much biological speculation has neglected to give adequate recognition to this cardinal fact. The brain attained what may be termed the human rank at a time when the jaws and face, and no doubt the body also, still retained much of the uncouthness of man's simian ancestors. In other words, man at first, so far as his general appearance and ‘build’ are concerned, was merely an ape with an over­grown brain. The importance of the Piltdown skull lies in the fact that it affords tangible confirmation of these inferences.”见:Smith, G. E. 1916. Primitive Man. Proceedings of the British Academy 7:455-505.

     

    152“The conventional interpretation is that the forgery was a masterful splicing of human and orangutan bones to provide material support for (or mockery of) the theories of Grafton Elliott Smith and Arthur Keith.”见:Langdon, J. H. 1991. Misinterpreting Piltdown. Current Anthropology 32(5):627-631.

     

    153“which was designed to suggest cerebral primacy in the evolution from ape to human ancestors.”见:Foster, J. B. The Return of Nature: Socialism and Ecology. New York, NY: NYU Press, 2020. p.278.

     

    154“The skull differed so much from those of the cavemen already found in Germany, Belgium, and France that it was difficult at first sight to interpret it.”见:Anonymous. A Palaeolithic Skull. Times, Dec. 19, 1912.

     

    155Piltdown Papers, p.2.

     

    156Piltdown Papers, pp.26-27; White, M. J. William Boyd Dawkins and the Victorian Science of Cave Hunting: Three Men in a Cavern. South Yorkshire, UK: Pen and Sword History, 2016. p.225.

     

    157“I fully accept Dr. Smith Woodward's opinion that the find belongs to the early Pleistocene period.”见:Dawkins, W. B. The Geological Evidence in Britain as to the Antiquity of Man. Report of the 85th Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Manchester, 1915, September 7-11. London, UK: John Murray, 1916. pp.421-423.

     

    158Pycraft, W. P. 1912. Science Jottings: Man and his Origin.The Illustrated London News 141(3834):541.

    159Spencer, F. Piltdown: A Scientific Forgery. Oxford University Press, 1990. p.xxiv, 65.

     

    160“A discovery of supreme importance to all who are interested in the history of the human race.”见:Pycraft, W. P. 1912. The Most Ancient Inhabitant of England: The Newly-Found Sussex Man. The Illustrated London News 141(3845):958.

     

    161Langham, I. 1978. Talgai and Piltdown – The Common Context. The Artefact 3(4): 181–224.另见:Millar, R. W. The Piltdown Man. New York, NY: St. Martin's Press, 1972. pp.150-152; Spencer, F. Piltdown: A Scientific Forgery. Oxford University Press, 1990. p.93.

     

    162“and it certainly helped to create a climate of opinion in which the Piltdown fraud would be taken seriously.”见:Bowler, P. J. Theories of Human Evolution : A Century of Debate, 1844-1944. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986. p.164.

     

    163“On the anatomical side, the Piltdown skull realized largely the antipations of students of human evolution.”见:Weiner, J. S. The Piltdown Forgery. London, University of Oxford Press, 1955. p.6.

     

    164Dawson, C. and Woodward, A. S. 1913. On the Discovery of a Palæolithic Human Skull and Mandible in Flint-Bearing Gravel Overlying the Wealden (Hastings Beds) at Piltdown, Fletching (Sussex). Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society 69(1):117-151.

     

    165“Whether the erect attitude or the characteristic brain-development  was first obtained by man has been debated for many  years. In this case, the evidence was taken to show that the assumption of the erect attitude came as a means of surmounting the crux of the situation. Thenceforth the upper limb was emancipated entirely from its locomotor functions. Upon this emancipation followed the liberation of jaws and mouth from their use as organs of prehension. Simultaneously the mechanism whereby the head is attached to the neck and trunk became profoundly modified. This alteration gave to the brain an opportunity of growth and increase previously denied, but now seized, with the consequent accession of intellectual activity so characteristic of the Hominidae.”见:Duckworth, W. L. H. Prehistoric Man. Cambridge University Press, 1912. p.3.

     

    166“I am still unable to match the Piltdown mandible in regard to the symphysial (or para-symphysial) region!”见:Piltdown Papers, p.69.

     

    167“Dr. W. D. H. Duckworth, Reader in Anthropology in Cambridge University, said he had come independently to the conclusion that a mistake had been made in the reconstruction of the Piltdown skull. In his opinion Professor Keith was right: the Brain capacity was nearly 1,500 cubic centimeters.”见:Anonymous. The Piltdown Skull: Discussion on the Size of the Brain. Times, Aug. 12, 1913.

     

    168“His knowledge of the non-metrical features of the primate skull was unique, and his experience had given him a redoubtable sense of the appropriate in reconstructions. Consequently, he was always critical of the association of the Piltdown jaw with the cranium, and if he had been listened to in the earlier discussions on that material, several reputations in human palaeontology might be a little less tarnished than they now are.”见:Boyd, J. 1956. Dr. W. L H. Duckworth. Nature 177(4507):505–506.

     

    169Tobias, P. V. Introduction to a Forgery. In: Spencer, F. Piltdown: A Scientific Forgery. Oxford University Press, 1990. pp.viii-xii.

     

    170】李济:《论“道森氏·晓人”案件及原始资料之鉴定与处理》,《现代学术季刊》1957年第1卷第21-13页。

     

    171Anonymous. 1916. Societies and Academies. Nature 97(2418):25-27.

     

    172“forever demolish all heresies.”见:Miller, G. S. Letter to A. S. Woodward. March 21, 1917. Piltdown Papers, 144-145.

     

    173“From the new facts now described it seems reasonable to conclude that Eoanthropus dawsoni will eventually prove to be as definite and distinct a form of early Man as was at first supposed; for the occurrence of the same type of frontal bone with the same type of lower molar in two separate localities adds to the probability that they belonged to one and the same species.”见:Woodward , A . S . 1917. Fourth Note on the Piltdown Gravel, with Evidence of a Second Skull of Eoanthropus dawsoni. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society 73(1):1-10.

     

    174】“Very recently the jaw of the Piltdown man has been restudied and referred by more than one expert to a fully adult chimpanzee. This leaves us still in doubt as to the exact geologic age and relationships of the Piltdown man…”见:Osborn, H. F. Men of the Old Stone Age: Their Environment, Life, and Art. New York, NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1918. p.144.

     

    175“The problem whether the Piltdown jaw belongs to this human skull or whether it belongs to a fossil chimpanzee is still not actually settled.”见:Osborn, H. F. 1920. The Hall of the Age of Man in the American Museum. Natural History 20(3):229-246.

     

    176“La déconveite de l’homme de Piltdown est peut-être le fait le plus important qui se soit produit en Paléontologie humaine depuis dix ans”“Comme par exprès, le condyle s’est trouvé manquer!”见:Teilhard de Chardin P. 1920. Le cas de l'homme de Piltdown. Revue des Questions Scientifiques 77:149155.

     

    177Gould, S. J. 1980. The Piltdown Conspiracy. Natural History  89(8):8-28.

     

    178“Eoanthropus, the ‘dawn man’ of Piltdown, has had a battle royal for recognition by the scientific world. Since the first fragments of his skull were reported in 1911 by the geologist, Charles Dawson, and first made known to the scientific world in I913 by Dawson and Arthur Smith Woodward, the latter Keeper of Fossils in the British Museum, the contest of opinion has been long and heated and at times acrimonious. Over a few fragments of skull bone, three teeth, and a portion of the jaw, the wise anatomists of Great Britain, of western Europe, and of the North American continent have expressed opinions of every variety.”见:Osborn, H. F. 1921. The Dawn Man of Piltdown, Sussex. Natural History 21(6):577-590.

     

    179“Even to this day, however, some anthropologists  regard this jaw as belonging to a new type of ape.”见: Smith, G. E. Human History. London: Jonathan Cape Ltd., 1934. pp.84-86.

     

    180“The problem whether the Piltdown jaw belongs to this human skull or whether it belongs to a fossil chimpanzee is now actually settled, because a second specimen of the Piltdown man has been found two miles from the first in the same Piltdown gravels; this specimen has the same kind of lower grinding teeth and the same form in the bone of the forehead.”见:Osborn, H. F. The Hall of the Age of Man. The Guide Leaflet Series No. 52. American Museum of Natural History, 1923. p.9.

     

    181】刘咸:《从猿到人发展史》,中国科学图书仪器公司1950年版53页。

     

    182“Paradoxical as it may appear, O Lord, it is nevertheless true, etc.”“the writer desires not only to recant his former doubts as to the association of the jaw with the skull.”见:Osborn, H. F. 1921. The Dawn Man of Piltdown, Sussex. Natural History 21(6):577-590.

     

    183DeSimone, A. A. Ancestors or Aberrants: Studies in the History of American Paleoanthropology, 1915–1940. University of Massachusetts Amherst, Ph. D. Dissertation, 1986. pp.37-39. 关于奥斯本的种族主义思想,见:Osborn, H. F. 1926. The Evolution of Human Races. Natural History 26(1):3-13; Morris,  H. M. and ‎ Morris, J. D. The Modern Creation Trilogy: Scripture and Creation, Science and Creation, Society and Creation. Green Forest, AR: Master Books, 1996. p.101; Regal, B. Henry Fairfield Osborn: Race and the Search for the Origins of Man. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Co., 2018. p.xvi, 102.

     

    184“a memorial to a forgery and its forger.”见:Donovan, S. 2016. The Triumph of the Dawsonian Method. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association. 127(1):101-106.

     

    185“an examination of the cranial fragments in detail  shows a greater harmony between the anatomical features of the jaw  and cranium than has usually been believed to exist.”转引自:Miller, G. S. Jr. 1928. The Controversy over Human “Missing Links.” Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1928, pp.413–465.

     

    186“the skull is brought into closer relation with the skull of the anthropoids”; “As a result, the cranium falls into complete harmony with the chimpanzee-like jaw”; “the paradox which has hitherto been a stumbling-block to the acceptance of the jaw as indubitably belonging to the fragments of the cranium now disappears.”见:Anonymous. 1922. Research Items. Nature 109(2744):726.

     

    187Anonymous. 1913. The Piltdown Skull. Nature 91(2286):640–641; Anonymous. 1913. Ape-Man or Modern Man? the Two Piltdown Skull Reconstructions. The Illustrated London News 143(3878):245; Keith, A. 1913. Ape-Man or Modern Man? the Two Piltdown Skull Reconstructions. The Illustrated London News 143(3879:282; Anonymous. The Piltdown Skull: Discussion on the Size of the Brain. Times, Aug. 12, 1913.

     

    188Anonymous. 1925. Whence Man? Time 5(22):18-19; Cole, F. 1925. The Evolution of Man. The Scientific Monthly21(3):317-322; Scopes, J. T. The World's Most Famous Court Trial. Cincinnati , OH: National Book Company, 1925. p.237, 278.

     

    189“If the Piltdown jaw belongs with the skull, and of this there can be little reasonable doubt, we shall have to abandon the old functional theory that the human brain evolved because the jaws atrophied and shrank, as a result of their loss of function through the freeing of the arms for prehension.”见:Hooton, E. A. Up from the Apes. London: Allen & Unwin, 1931. p.314.

     

    190“This is one way of getting rid of facts which do not fit into a preconceived theory; the usual way pursued by men of science is, not to get rid of facts, but frame theory to fit them.”见:Gould, S. J. 1979. Piltdown Revisited. Natural History 88(3):86-97.

     

    191“Evolution is not a harmonious progression of all parts of the organism; it is a jerky and asymmetrical transformation.”见:Hooton, E. A. Up from the Apes. New York, NY: MacMillan Co., 1946. p.311.

     

    192“The skull and jaw of the ‘Piltdown Man,’ found in a gravel pit in England and announced to the world in 1912, were a sensation because the discovery upset prevailing theories about the antiquity of the modem human form.”见:Wilford, J. N. Mastermind of Piltdown Hoax Unmasked? New York Times, June 5, 1990.

     

    193“Indeed, out of Germany came a treasure trove of fossils, starting with the breath­taking finds from the valley of Neander, giving the name to the most famous of all our ancestors. Out of France came our most recent and advanced relatives, the Cro-Magnons, with their cave paintings, clothing, jewelry, and complex tool kits that allowed them to develop what could genuinely be called culture. Ad­ditional fossils were discovered in Holland, Belgium, and scattered areas of Asia and Southeast Asia, including significant finds at Peking (‘Peking Man’) in China and at Java (‘Java Man’) in southeast Asia. ……It seemed everyone was getting in on the great human fossil hunt; everyone except the English, that is. Was it possible that humans did not evolve in En­gland? Were Englishmen nothing more than a recent migration from the con­tinent, a backwater of human evolution? If only an ancient hominid could be found here. And what a coup it would be that if that hominid, unlike many of the finds coming from elsewhere, clearly showed a humanlike brain sitting atop more primitive primate features, especially a jaw. Seek and ye shall find, build it and they will come -pick your metaphor. The British got what they were wishing for in 1912. ”见:【30】。

     

    194“Before Piltdown English paleoanthropology was mired in a limbo now occupied by students of extraterrestrial life: endless fields for speculation and no direct evidence. Beyond some flint "cultures" of doubtful human workmanship and some bones strongly suspected as products of recent interments into ancient gravels, England knew nothing of its most ancient ancestors. France, on the other hand, had been blessed with a superabundance of Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons and their associated art and tools. And French anthropologists delighted in rubbing English noses with this marked disparity of evidence. Piltdown could not have been better designed to turn the tables. It seemed to predate Neanderthal by a considerable stretch of time. If human fossils had a fully modern cranium hundreds of thousands of years before beetle-browed Neanderthal appeared, then Piltdown must be our ancestor and the French Neanderthals a side branch.”见:Gould, S. J. 1979. Piltdown Revisited. Natural History 88(3):86-97.

     

    195“Piltdown also buttressed some all too familiar racial views among white Europeans. In the 1930s and 1940s, following the discovery of Peking man in strata approximately equal in age with the Piltdown gravels, phyletic trees based on Piltdown and affirming the antiquity of white supremacy began to appear in the literature (although they were never adopted by Piltdown's chief champions, Smith Woodward, Smith, and Keith). Peking man (originally called Sinanthropus, but now placed in Homo erectus ) lived in China with a brain two-thirds modern size, while Piltdown man, with its fully developed brain, inhabited England. If Piltdown, as the earliest Englishman, was the progenitor of white races, while other hues must trace their ancestry to Homo erectus, then whites crossed the threshold to full humanity long before other people. As longer residents in this exalted state, whites must excel in the arts of civilization.”出处同上。

     

    196“No one has ever (and rightly, in my opinion) suspected Smith Woodward, the superstraight arrow who devoted his life to the reality of Piltdown and who, past eighty and blind, dictated in retirement his last book with its chauvinistic title, The Earliest Englishman (1948).”出处同上。

     

    197】日加洛夫:《英国新法西斯主义:起源、主旨、特征》,原载苏联《历史问题》19807期;桂宝康摘译,见:《现代外国哲学社会科学(文摘)》1981244-45页。

     

    198“From the 1840s to the 1940s, Britain's "native policy" was dominated by racism. The golden age of the British Empire was the golden age of British racism too.”见:Fryer, P. Staying Power: The History of Black People in Britain. London, UK: Pluto Press, 1984. p.165.

     

    199】方舟子:《信仰马克思主义的西方科学大师》,20021010日《南方周末》;见新语丝20021011日新到资料。

     

    200“Dr. Smith Woodward, the retiring Keeper of Geology at the British Museum, is famous for his work on the Piltdown Skull.”见:C. N and Barratt. 1924. Personalities of the Week: People in the Public Eye. The Illustrated London News 164(4429): 393.

     

    201“the three leading lights of British anthropology and paleontology.”见:Gould, S. J. 1979. Piltdown Revisited. Natural History 88(3):86-97.

     

    202Reader, J. Missing Links: The Hunt for Earliest Man. Boston, MA: Little, Brown & Company, 1981. p.54.

     

    203“a proponent of scientific racism.”见:英文维基百科,Arthur Keith。(阅读日期:2020629日。)另见:Sawday, J. ‘New Men, Strange Faces, Other Minds’: Arthur Keith, Race and the Piltdown Affair (1912–53). In: Ernst, W. and Harris, B. (eds.) Race, Science and Medicine, 1700-1960. London, UK: Routledge, 1999. pp.259-288; Taguieff, P. The Force of Prejudice: On Racism and Its Doubles. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 2001. pp.362-363.

     

    204“Believing, however, that heredity is true, I have difficulty in even supposing that the native peoples  of Africa were ever pioneers in advancing the cultures of the world” “In the Chinese culture of to-day old things are combined with new; there seems to have been the same mixture in the Chinese cultures of palaeolithic times.”见:Keith, A. New Discoveries Relating to the Antiquity of Man. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Co., 1931. p.171, 247.

     

    205Osborn, H. F. Hesperopithecus, the First Anthropoid Primate Found in America. American Museum Novitates No. 37, April 25, 1922; Osborn, H. F. 1922. Hesperopithecus, the First Anthropoid Primate Found in America. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 8(8): 245–246; Osborn, H. F. 1922. Hesperopithecus, the First Anthropoid Primate Found in North America. Science. 55 (1427):463–465.

     

    206Smith, G. E. The Earliest Man? An American Discovery. Times, May 20, 1922.

     

    207Woodward, A. S. The Earliest Man? Times, May 22, 1922; Woodward, A. S. 1922. A Supposed Ancestral Man in North America. Nature 109(2745):750.

     

    208Smith, G. E. 1922. Hesperopithecus: The Ape-Man of the Western World. The Illustrated London News 160(4340):944.

     

    209“One of my friends, Prof. G. Elliot Smith, has perhaps shown too great optimism in his most interesting newspaper and magazine articles on Hesperopithecus.”见:Osborn, H. F. 1922. Hesperopithecus, the Anthropoid Primate of Western Nebraska. Nature 110(2756):281–283.

     

    210“Reduction of black pigment in the skin”; “This process of suppression of pigment - formation was carried farthest in the blond Nordic race.”见:【208

     

    211Smith, G. E. Foreword: Man’s Pedigree. In: Smith, G. E. The Evolution of Man. London, UK: Oxford University Press, 1924. pp.1-15.

     

    212“In the process of evolution of the races of Mankind there was a progressive loss of pigmentation.”见:Smith, G. E. Human History. London: Jonathan Cape Ltd., 1934. p.76.

     

    213The Japanese, for instance, sometimes have a skin as white as the European, especially in those parts of the body which are protected by clothing from exposure to the sun.”出处同上,pp.149-150.

     

    214The Japanese make steam-engines and build battleships, although they had no share in the invention of these devices of Western civilization.”“A considerable ingredient in the composition of the population of Japan is formed by this Mediterranean element.”出处同上,p.113, 153.

     

    215“It would be interesting and entertaining to discuss the history of some of the false claims made by over-enthusiastic searchers in different parts of the world; such, for example, as the mistaking of …..or the assumption that the tooth of a Pliocene peccary from Nebraska gave America the right to claim this ‘Playboy of the Western World’ (Hesperopithecus) as the earliest known member of the Human Family.”见:Smith, G. E. Early Man: His Origin, Development and Culture. London, UK: Ernest Benn Limited, 1931. p.20.

     

    216Osborn, H. F. 1927. Recent Discoveries Relating to the Origin and Antiquity of Man. Science 65 (1690): 481-488; Osborn, H. F. 1927. Recent Discoveries Relating to the Origin and Antiquity of Man. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 66:373–389.

     

    217Gregory, W.K. 1927. Hesperopithecus Apparently not an Ape nor a Man. Science 66 (1720):579–581; Anonymous. Nebraska Ape Tooth Proved a Wild Pigs: 'Million-Dollar' Molar Stirred. New York Times, Feb. 20, 1928.

     

    218】周国兴:《人怎样认识自己的起源 人类起源研究史话 下》,中国青年出版社1980年版55页。注:周国兴所说的故事,很可能是根据前苏联1959年出版的一本书:“The reactionary German scientist, Franz Koch, whom we have already mentioned, made original use of the discovery of the Hesperopithecus. In a monograph (l929, S. 164, Karte X) he included a curious genealogy in which the Hesperopithecus was shown as an ancestor of modern man. Since Koch's monograph gave the central place to the North European or Nordic race as being the highest type of human being, he had included that fossil North American pig amongst the ancestors of his Nordic man.”(Nesturkh, M. F. The Origin of Man. Moscow, USSR:  Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1959. p.74.

     

    219】转引自:夏鼐:《“辟尔当人”疑案的解决及其教训》,《科学通报》1954854-56页。

     

    220】梁国钊:《科研与道德》,广西人民出版社1986年版114页。

     

    221“Although his theory was first publicized in the second decade of the century, he did not mention genes, but rather spoke about heredity through hormones.”见:Barkan, E. The Retreat of Scientific Racism:_Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States between the World Wars.Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992. p.42.

     

    222】见:1925年出版的《远古人类》第二版(Keith, A. The Antiquity of Man. London, UK: Williams and Norgate, 1925. Two volumes, 753 pages); 1931年出版的《与远古人类有关的新发现》(Keith, A. New Discoveries Relating to the Antiquity of Man. London, UK: Williams and Norgate, 1931. One volume, 512 pages)。

     

    223Barkan, E. The Retreat of Scientific Racism: Changing Concepts of Race in Britain and the United States between the World Wars.Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992. p.42.另外,耶鲁大学生物学家兰铎说:纪斯对皮尔当人头骨的描述与史密斯的描述是那么不同,以致人们会怀疑他们是在描述同一件化石。(“Keith's description of the Piltdown skull differs so much from the one found in Elliot Smith's The Evolution of Man that one may wonder whether they refer to the same fossil.”见: Landau, M. Narratives of Human Evolution. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993. p.5.

     

    224Editorial. 2012. John Maddox prize: Two Strong-minded Individuals Are the First Winners of an Award for Standing up for Science. Nature 491(7423):160.

     

    225Ge, X. A Response to the Statement by Ms. Tracey Brown, Dr. Philip Campbell, and Dr. Colin Blakemore, 3 Judges of the John Maddox Prize. China Academic Integrity Review, July, 11, 2013; 亦明:《方舟子2013年十大要闻十、大不劣癫,啊美丽奸》,中国学术评价网,20131231日。

     

    226“Professor Keith also drew attention to the fact that when the skull, as reconstructed by Dr. Smith Woodward, was articulated to the backbone, the upper joints of the spinal column came so near the palate that the person, as reconstructed at South Kensington, could neither breathe nor eat. It was possible, the speaker added, that Eoanthropus could not speak, but they must suppose he could breathe and eat.”见:Anonymous. The Piltdown Skull: Discussion on the Size of the Brain. Times, Aug. 12, 1913.

     

    227“I do not profess to have any expert knowledge of teeth,”见: Smith, G. E. 1916. Discussion. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 9 (Odontological Section):56-58.

     

    228“I was extremely skeptical of the interpretation; for it seems to be utterly impossible that a creature so susceptible to the effects of climatic changes as an anthropoid ape could have made the journey to America,”见:Smith, G. E. The Earliest Man? Evidence of Primitive Migration. May 23, 1922.

     

    229 “It may seem hazardous to base such far-reaching conclusions on the evidence of a single tooth,” 见:Smith, G. E. The Earliest Man? An American Discovery. Times, May 20, 1922.

     

    230“Such investigations have been made by perhaps the most experienced authorities on fossil teeth.” “these American savants’ authority in such matters is unquestionable.”出处同上。

     

    231“I happen to know that Dr. Matthew and Dr. Gregory, whose authority and practical experience in such matters is unrivalled,”见:Smith, G. E. The Earliest Man? Evidence of Primitive Migration. May 23, 1922.

     

    232Smith, G. E. The Nebraska Tooth: How to Utilize the Accident. Times, Feb. 21, 1925.

     

    233Lyne, W. C. The Nebraska Tooth. Times, Feb. 27, 1925.

     

    234Lyne, W. C. 1916. The Significance of the Radiographs of the Piltdown Teeth. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 9(Odontological Section): 33–51.

     

    235】亦明:《方舟子早在1995年就抄袭MSU教授的英文文章,虹桥科教论坛,2010-10-14 06:00:54

     

    236】“Root-Bernstein博士污蔑我从新语丝拿工资发博文、我的文章90%是其论文内容、我逐字照抄其文字和例子(其实我已做恰当的改写并举自己的例子)、我剽窃其论文和侵犯其版权,全是谣言,他授权‘方学家’诋毁我,我不起诉他已算客气,他还敢扬言告我?这是我对该事件最后表态,以后有人再问一概拉黑。”见方舟子新浪微博:2011-8-22 22:42

     

    237】“于是他无视二者表述上的细微差别(比如我更准确地指的是平均数),断定我那句话出自贾士荣的文章。”见:方舟子:《玉米花粉的妄想狂笑话》,新语丝2007124日新到资料。

     

    238】方舟子:《剽窃的层次》,《环球》20051555页;见新语丝200581日新到资料。

     

    239】“这网上,能让人读得下去的文章无非两类:掐架的和炫耀才学的。”见:方舟子:《乌鸦词和名女人》,《方舟子杂文》,新语丝网站。

     

    240】方舟子:《关于中国科大的现状和未来》,新语丝2000131日新到资料。注:“一等一的全才”是方舟子中科大校友、著名方粉王艳红(网名“碧声”)谎称是网友对方舟子的赞颂之词。见:王艳红:《方舟在线——网络斗士方舟子访谈》,新语丝2000725日新到资料。

     

    241方舟子:《如何避免学术不端行为》,2007214日《中国青年报》;见新语丝2007214日新到资料。

     

    242方舟子:《“方舟子抄袭颖河”一事再说几句》,新语丝200723日新到资料;新语丝读书论坛:2012-07-26 05:12:37

     

    243】方舟子:《智力正常地解决“编译”问题——答复旦大学医学院公共卫生学院副教授边建超》,新语丝20011011日新到资料。

     

    244】“这位《东方企业家》执行主编居然把注射疫苗视同谋杀,即便如此,首恶也是卫生部和世界卫生组织,只敢把其无知的愤恨发泄到一个不过是在普及科学界主流观点的科普作家身上,血口喷人,装什么好汉?”见:方舟子的新浪微博,2010-9-25 13:54

     

    245】亦明:《方舟子四年前曾抄袭一家英国医学院学报》,虹桥科教论坛,20101121日。

     

    246】亦明:《方舟子与〈中国青年报〉邪恶同盟的终结当一个无知被捧为全知(之三)》,中国学术评价网,20111111日。

     

    247】亦明:《方老偷,还在偷──给〈新华每日电讯〉总编辑解国记先生的第四封公开信》,中国学术评价网,20121112日。

     

    248】亦明:《方氏文贼的方式科唬──给〈新华每日电讯〉的第八封公开信》,中国学术评价网,20141129日。

     

    249】路甬祥:《纪念达尔文》,《科学文化评论》200945-12页。

     

    250李云芳:《“冰桶挑战”——玩转微博公益的新实践》,见谢毅主编:《年度音视频经典案例选粹 2015年》,暨南大学出版社2015年版42-55页。

     

    251】费伟伟、赵鹏:《福建基础夯实稳中求进》,201263日《人民日报》。

     

    252】胡慧敏:《云霄假烟云散烟消了吗》,《福建质量信息》200247-10页。

     

    253】高老头:《清华学位授予能否走出黑暗》,新语丝2002620日新到资料。

     

    254】大洋彼岸的绅士:《证据确凿:方舟子造谣诽谤习近平》,大洋彼岸的绅士的新浪博客,2012-10-04 08:09:16亦明:《方舟子2014年十大要闻·二、溷兮龟来,螃蟹蛤蟆》,中国学术评价网,20141230日。

     

    255】佚名:《福建云霄恶名远扬 制假烟落下个穷》,2002314日《中国消费者报》。

     

    256】佚名:《打假英雄、打假办主任、技监局局长方镇山卸任刚十天住宅遭爆炸》,《城市技术监督》2000115页;本刊编辑部:《坚决声援打假卫士──兼亲切慰问原云霄县技监局局长方镇山同志》,《城市技术监督》2000115页。

     

    257】杨阳腾:《“打假办”主任缘何假打》,《广西质量监督导报》2001517-18页;福建省云霄县人民检察院:《分析特点 剥去伪装 力克堡垒——查处云霄县原技术监督局局长方镇山放纵制售伪劣商品犯罪行为罪的做法》,见:最高人民检察院渎职侵权检察厅编:《渎职侵权罪案侦查经验点评》,当代世界出版社2002年版539-544页。

     

    258】见赵嘉敏的新浪微博:2011-1-8 10:50

     

    259见方舟子的新浪微博:2011-1-8 17:38

     

    260Estrelita:《方舟子:我是一个对真相有洁癖的人》,《福建人》20141024-30页。

     

    261亦明:《方舟子2011年十大要闻》,中国学术评价网,20111229日。


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  • 亦明_:五、结论

    五、结论

     

    前面提到,早在登上中国社会这个大舞台之初,方舟子就曾向世人宣称自己对科学哲学和科学历史感兴趣,并且立志要对之进行“探索”或“做点思考”。而我早就指出,“方舟子基本没有抽象思维能力,而只会进行线性思维,并且是短路线性思维。这样的人,搞‘哲学’研究,简直就是滑天下之大稽”【235】事实是,在1995年抄袭了“MSU教授的英文文章”写成《科学是什么》一文之后,方舟子几乎再无“科学哲学”文章问世。但方舟子对科学史的兴趣却一直保存了下来,并且从20083月起开始在《经济观察报》上发表“科学史上著名公案系列文章,15个月内总共发表了三十多篇,涵盖数学、物理学、天文学、人类学、考古学和医学等领域,号称“方舟子解读科学史著名谜团”,俨然一副“中国头号科学历史学家”的派头。而方舟子之所以会放弃“科学哲学”而转攻“科学历史”,原因非常简单:要偷“科学哲学”的文章,首先需要搞懂人家在说什么,而方舟子就是连这个门槛都跨不过去。但到科学史故纸堆中去翻捡陈芝麻烂谷子,即翻炒所谓“公案”,却是一个连monkey都可以干的活计;并且,这些冷饭、剩饭、馊饭之多,足够方舟子吃几辈子了。可惜的是,方舟子不仅没有抽象思维能力,他连归纳整理、辨别真伪的能力都没有。所以,他撰写“科学史”文章的基本模式就是以某个人的某一篇文章为蓝本,然后做些“恰当的改写并举自己的例子”【236】——其实质就是通过“东抄西凑”来制造“细微差别”【237】,再用这些“细微差别”来当作自己的文章是“原创”的证据。也就是因为必须偏听偏信,并且还必须偏听偏信旁门左道、奇谈怪论,所以方舟子的科学史文章不仅在史实方面错误连连,他在发表史论时也只能鹦鹉学舌般地跟着洋人胡咧咧。

     

    按照“打假斗士”方舟子的说法,抄袭剽窃大致分为两类,一类是抄袭他人的文字,另一类是抄袭他人的观点;而在二者之中,后者的性质更为恶劣——这是他的原话:

     

    “可见,对论文而言,剽窃有两种:一种是剽窃观点,用了他人的观点而不注明,让人误以为是你自己的观点;一种是剽窃文字,照抄别人的文字表述而没有注明出处且用引号,让人误以为是你自己的表述。当然,由于论文注重观点的原创性,前者要比后者严重。至于普及性的文章却有所不同,因为并不注重观点的原创性,所以并不要求对来自别人的观点一一注明,因此只看重文字表述是否剽窃。”【238】

     

    也就是说,方舟子一边为自己“打别人的假”大开方便之门,一边把别人“打方舟子的假”的大门关闭了一大半。还是按照方舟子的说法,作文的目的主要有二,一是“掐架”、二是“炫耀才学”。【239】而方舟子“炫耀才学”的门路之一,就是把别人的独特观点抄来,以显示自己确实是一个“狂而不妄、智商高超、刻苦勤奋的(一等一的)人才”。【240】也就是因为这个问题对他至关重要,方舟子后来不但向“中国青年”灌输“在看待剽窃的问题上,也要防止采用过分严格的标准”这个独特的观点【241】,他还恬不知耻地反复拿这个观点来为自己的抄袭行为辩护【242】。

     

    事实是,为了自己的文抄公生涯能够“武运长久”,方舟子不仅敢于制定“标准”,他还勇于自戕。200110月,也就是在他的文贼历史首次被人揭发之际,一直摆着“少侠下山”飒爽英姿的方舟子突然间变成了一个猥猥琐琐的小瘪三,说什么“我的文章除了个别的评论,在观点上的确没有多少是我自己想出来的。”【243】九年后,因为有人在新浪微博上公开指责方舟子的科唬“贻害无穷”、“丝毫不亚于肖传国对公民的迹近谋杀的人身伤害”,一直在搞“强势鹰派科普”的方舟子突然间变成了一只温柔可爱、可怜兮兮的“和平鸽”,说自己只是“一个不过是在普及科学界主流观点的科普作家”。【244

     

    事实是,方舟子在中国大陆科唬的主要目的,就是兜售“我的观点”;而他的那些观点,除了来自他背后主子的授意之外,大多都是偷来的。确实,向中国公众兜售他从西方的犄角旮旯偷来的奇谈怪论,是方舟子科唬的最大特征。例如,2002年,方舟子从加拿大数学家道尼那里盗来“美国社会学家史密特通过试验证明智商是可以改变的”这个观点。【1422006年,方舟子从英国的《研究生医学杂志》那里偷来了“达尔文罹患全身性乳糖不耐症”这个观点。【2452010年,方舟子从一位澳大利亚学者那里偷来了“大象的鼻子那么长是为了能潜水呼吸”这个观点。【2462012年,他从美国华盛顿大学教授那里偷来了“美国总统华盛顿罹患男性不育症”这个观点【2472014年,他又从美国《达特茅茨本科生科学杂志》那里偷来了“潜水反射导致溺水儿童获救”这个观点。【248】为什么面对着汪洋大海般的西方“科学界主流观点”,方舟子偏偏对这些学术垃圾情有独钟呢?原因非常简单:他的根本“人设”就是“成名”,而不标新立异、不剑走偏锋,就凭他那颗简单的头脑、那点儿有限的知识、和那“干屎橛”般的文笔,他永远都不可能有出头之日。

     

    事实是,方舟子偷来的“达尔文罹患全身性乳糖不耐症”这个谬论就曾把中国科学院院长路甬祥唬得晕头转向,以致他在纪念达尔文二百周年诞辰之际,当着中国科学院研究生院全体师生的面以讹传讹。【249】同样,方舟子以偷来的“潜水反射”为由拒不接受“冰桶挑战”,也使他这个“中年猥琐男”与林志玲、周迅这样的大牌美女并列为“明星”。【250】也就是因为这个原因,方舟子在2008年科唬“皮尔当人骗局”之际,不仅要偷谢尔默的文,而且还必须盗他的“意”——如果不盗意的话,他的这篇文章怎么可能超过在他之前发表的数以百计的相关文章,尤其是自己的护法杜磊的文章?当然,方舟子之所以那么喜欢到科学界的犄角旮旯去拾荒,还有一个重要原因,那就是,他以为这么做,被“方学家”抓住手脖子的可能性比他到“科学界主流”那里捞世界要小得多。

     

    总而言之,因为才疏学浅,智力有限,绝代文贼方舟子在科唬之时行窃是必然的;而他的不幸就在于,因为才疏学浅,智力有限,他在行窃之际,也必然会在作案之际留下行窃的“铁证”。而《“皮尔当人”骗局》一文的最大价值,就是给上面这个论断提供了如山般的铁证。



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    从“造假之乡”爬出来的“打假斗士”

    方舟子的老家福建省云霄县是世界闻名的“造假之乡”,被中央电视台曝光多达五次,而《人民日报》从1992年起多次点它的名,直到2012年还在一篇头版文章中称它为“假烟之都”。【2511997年,国家公安部等6个部委曾组成联合行动组到云霄县“打假”,但云霄骗子很快又卷土重来。2001年,福建省省长习近平亲自对查处“云霄假烟”做出过如下批示:“云霄制假烟出现反弹应引起高度重视,要继续列为我省打假重点,集中力量予以打击。要切实建立地方领导责任制,提出要求务必完成任务,对处置不力和反映汇报虚假成绩的,一经发现,应当给予严肃处理。”【252】这一事件很可能导致方舟子对习近平怀恨在心,所以他从2002年起就在新语丝上对之“打假”【253】,并且一直打到2012年、打到美国中央情报局控制的宣传机构“美国之音”。【254

     

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    福建云霄的特产和奇观:“假打斗士”前仆后继

    方舟子不仅仅是从“造假之乡”爬出来的,他的“打假斗士”成名史也与“假烟之都”的发家史完全同步。据说,在云霄,当时人们的口头禅就是“无假不富”。【255】就在方舟子变成“打假斗士”那一年,云宵县技监局局长、打假办主任方镇山也被媒体捧为“打假英雄”、“打假卫士”。【256】一年后,方镇山因为在打假过程中故意放纵制假并收受贿赂被云宵县法院判处有期徒刑14。【257】尽管方舟子在“成名”之后一直对自己生于“造假之乡”、长于“假烟之都”这个事实讳莫如深,但十年后,有人爆料说,方舟子的福建老乡、凤凰卫视节目主持人杨锦麟曾向媒体透露:“方舟子的家乡是假烟的产地”。【258】当时正因“羊角锤击案”而处于人生癫疯的方舟子利欲熏心,想要借机炒作“方舟子的《大象为什么不长毛》获《新京报》生活类奖”这个话题,竟然在第一时间转发了这个帖子,并且装疯卖傻般地这样打哈哈道:“据说县领导是这么向来宾介绍的:我们云霄有三样特产,枇杷、假烟、方舟子。”【259】三年后,早已臭了大街的方舟子又被其老家杂志《福建人》当作“封面人物”继续吹捧;而丑闻缠身、恶名传遍全世界的方舟子则继续恬不知耻地借机自吹自擂,说自己“是一个对真相有洁癖的人”。【260】实际上,早在那之前三年我就已经指出:“‘真相洁癖’和‘道德洁癖’双重患者方舟子在过去的八九年间,一直在和一头蠹虫、一条粪蛆同床共枕”、“到了2011年底,……他的‘真相洁癖’又犯了,只不过犯病的症状和以前大不相同:在以前,他一犯病就钻进别人的肛门找屎渣,现在,他一看到的粪水淋漓、臭气熏天的刘菊花,就耳聋眼瞎鼻孔不通气儿。”【261

     


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  • 亦明_:四、伪斗犬吠影吠声

    四、伪斗犬吠影吠声

     

    方舟子自称从小就热爱科学,但他却在获得博士学位三年之后就主动放弃自己的“科学家”生涯,跑到中国学术界“义务”当“造反派”,专职搞打、砸、抢——用江晓原的说法就是“踢场子”、“搅局子”【129】——这是为什么呢?答案当然是要当中国科学纳粹的二代舵主、方舟科邪教的首席教宗,但其正式身份则应该是“高级科普作家”。这是他在2000年说的话:

     

    在普及进化论时,不应该只限于普及一些科学知识,更应该帮助读者认识到进化论对人类理性和科学研究的重大意义,掌握科学思想、科学精神和科学方法。我认为,是否具有思想性,是区分所谓‘高级科普’和‘普通科普’的一条标准。”【130】

     

    也就是因为要给自己披上“高级科普作家”的外衣,方舟子在出道之初,不仅总是装神弄鬼地搞什么“宇宙与生命的沉思”、“生命的沉思”,他还反复通过其亲信向中国公众贩卖这样的信息:

     

    “我最想做的,是对生物学的历史、方法和思想做点思考。我一向对科学史和科学哲学感兴趣”。【131】

     

    “在学术上,我更喜欢探讨科学哲学和科学史的问题”。【132】

     

    而《“皮尔当人”骗局》的另一价值就是暴露出方舟子不仅在搞“低级科普”时必须抄袭,他在做“高级科普”时,也是如此、更是如此。【133

     

    1、文贼盗意被蒙骗

     

    原来,谢尔默在对那篇书评进行扩写时,主要是增加了一些思辨的内容,即从科学史和进化论的角度来审视这个骗局。而他当时考虑的一个主要问题就是:为什么这个并不怎么高明的骗局,能够如此“成功”?谢尔默给出的答案之一就是,因为这个骗局迎合了当时流行的观点:

     

    “作为一个叙事故事,皮尔当发现——一个大大的脑壳扣在一个猿类的下颌之上——-符合当时的科学和文化期望,因为它适宜地支持了这样的理论(读为“希望”):人类首先进化出了大脑,然后其他特征如双足行走、使用工具才进化出来。毕竟,按照进步主义的进化模式,我们之所以能够从猿猴一跃进入到人类,就是因为我们能够独特地进行抽象思维,能够策划、制定并且传播复杂的思想。他们的身体可能相似,但大脑却全然不同。特殊的大脑构成恰恰就是我们与猿猴的差异所在”【134

     

    与谢尔默相似,方舟子在讲述完这个“骗局”之后,也摆出了一副“科学哲学家”的架势来做“生命的沉思”:

     

    “也许这个问题更值得我们思考:为什么这个骗局会如此成功,过了40年才暴露?我们也许会把它归咎于当时化石鉴定技术的落后。并非完全如此。如果在当时进行仔细鉴定的话,也不难发现那是赝品:很容易发现其下颌骨是人工染色的,而且只染了表面,在下面就是白色的、还没有石化的骨头。”

     

    那么,到底是为什么呢?这是方舟子给出的第一条理由:

     

    “这个骗局如此成功,首先是因为它几乎就是为当时流行的理论应运而生的。根据达尔文的进化论,人是从古猿进化来的。人与猿的身体区别主要有两个:脑容量大和直立行走。这两个特征不可能同时出现,那么哪一个先进化呢?当时的生物学家普遍相信大脑先进化出来。‘皮尔当人’有人一样的大脑,却有猿一样的下颚,看来非常符合人们想像中的猿人特征,因此就被轻易接受,不疑有他。”

     

    尽管方舟子从上世纪末起就极力把自己打扮成“中国头号达尔文斗犬”,并且为此他撰写了大量的文章,出版有《进化新解说》、《进化新篇章》、《寻找生命的逻辑》等宣传进化论的“专著”,但是,在发表《皮尔当人骗局》之前,他却从来都没有告诉过自己的读者二十世纪初关于人类进化的“流行的理论”到底是什么。具体地说就是:方舟子不仅在“根据Ernst MayrJonathan Kingdon的综述”来讲解“猿怎样变成了人”之际对这个问题绝口不谈【135】,他在讲解西方人拒绝承认“爪哇人”是直立猿人、拒绝接受“汤恩化石”时,他也没有解释那些人的具体理由和根据是什么【136】。恰恰相反,方舟子反倒说过这样的话:

     

    “长期以来,对大脑进化的最流行的一种观点是:直立行走解放了古猿的双手,鼓励他们使用工具。工具的使用又成为一种自然选择压力,迫使大脑增大,以便能制造更复杂的工具。简单地说,工具的使用创造了人。”【137】

     

    也就是说,方舟子之所以会在20086月说出“当时的生物学家普遍相信大脑先进化出来”这样的话,只有一个可能,那就是在学舌谢尔默。但更奇的是,谢尔默也是在学舌他人。

     

    原来,谢尔默在进行思辨之时,主要参考了两个人的著作,一本是耶鲁大学生物学家兰铎(Misia Landau, 1953-)的《人类进化叙事》(Narratives of Human Evolution),另一本是哈佛大学教授古尔德(Stephen Jay Gould, 1941-2002)的《熊猫的拇指》(The Panda's Thumb)。而上述“当时的生物学家普遍相信大脑先进化出来,因此他们轻易接受皮尔当人”这个观点,就是来自《熊猫的拇指》中的一篇文章,《重访皮尔当》。【138】在这篇文章中,古尔德提出了这样一个问题:为什么这个骗局会轻易得手?对此,古尔德给出了四个答案,第二个答案就是,在当时,普遍存在着“大脑惟先”(brain primacy)的观念,即认为人类的进化始于大脑的进化,而不是始于直立行走和使用工具;皮尔当人的特征,即现代人类的大脑和猿类的下颚,与这个观念完全吻合,结果导致其被轻易接受——这是他的原话:

     

    “对于今天的我们来说,一个人类的颅骨上长着一个猿类的下颌,会显得太不协调,因此会引起强烈的怀疑。但是,在1913年,情况却非如此。在当时,许多著名的古生物学家基于一种先验的源于文化的原因,对人类进化的‘大脑惟先’观念心存偏好。这个观点根据的是一个错误推理:从现代的重要性到历史的优先性:我们人类在今天之所以能够占据统治地位,就是因为我们的智力。所以,在我们的进化中,肯定是先有一个硕大的大脑,然后才有我们身体的其他变化。我们应该预期会发现这样的人类祖先,他们的脑袋是大的,也许与现代人类相似,但他们的身体却明显是类猿的。”【139】

     

    显然,谢尔默的观点就是从古尔德那里抄来的。也就是说,和中国的反伪帮一样,美国的反伪帮内也是乌七八糟。更奇的是,古尔德的观点也是抄的。原来,在韦纳1955年出版的《皮尔当骗局》中,有这样一句话:

     

    “皮尔当人的大脑比他的面颊和下颚进化得更快,恰恰迎合了当时的观念。”【140】

     

    这就是古尔德观点之滥觞。可笑古尔德在《重访皮尔当》一文中虽然两次提到韦纳,但他却没有交代自己这个观点的来源。

     

    那么,为什么说方舟子“盗意”的来源是谢尔默而不是古尔德呢?这是因为,古尔德对自己提出的问题给出了四个答案,但谢尔默却对相同的问题只给出了两个答案,它们恰恰与方舟子给出的答案完全相同。假如方舟子抄袭的对象是古尔德的话,以他那好偷的本性,是绝不可能放着另外两个答案不偷的。

     

    俗话说,可怜之人多有可恨之处。但对于方舟子来说,这句俗话应该颠倒过来:可恨之人必有可怜之处。为什么这么说呢?这是因为,尽管方舟子总是要冒充“网络奇才”、“一等一全才”,但无情的事实却是,他的愚蠢和无知,不要说在留学生中难觅匹俦,即使和那些从未迈出国门的学人相比,他的无知和浅学也让人咂舌。而这么说的证据就是,这个蠢贼不仅在盗文之时会留下行窃的铁证,他在“盗意”之时,也是如此。原来,“大脑惟先”并非如古尔德、谢尔默所说,是“当时流行的理论”、皮尔当人迎合了这个理论。恰恰相反,这个理论很可能是专门为了迎合皮尔当人而刻意制造出来的。

     

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    半个世纪的连环套

    1955年,南非人类学家韦纳在分析皮尔当人轻易得逞的原因时,认为“该骗局迎合了当时的观念”。虽然没有明说“当时的观念”是什么,但其注释却指向史密斯首次提出“大脑惟先”理论的文章。1979年,美国著名古生物学家、美国科学警察(CSICOP)重要成员古尔德在做类似分析时,也提出了与韦纳相似的观点,并且加以发挥。2001年,美国著名“怀疑论者”谢尔默在分析这个问题时,基本上复述了古尔德22年前的话。2008年,中国著名科唬作家方舟子在科唬“‘皮尔当人’骗局”时,把谢尔默的话鹦鹉学舌般地重复了一遍。

     

    image.png

    与有荣焉

    早在上个世纪,方舟子就对古尔德推崇备至,说他既是“杰出的科学家……同时是优秀的、多产的科普作家。”【141】2001年,方舟子又把谢尔默捧为“美国著名怀疑论者”。【33】2002年,方舟子抄袭古尔德的《误测人类》一书写成《“智商”的误区》一文。【142】2008年,方舟子抄袭谢尔默的《科学的边界》一书写成《“皮尔当人”骗局》一文,其中他通过抄袭谢尔默间接地抄袭了古尔德的一个观点。2011年夏,因为遭到美国密歇根州立大学教授鲁特-伯恩斯坦的公开指控,方舟子强拉古尔德自保,发帖子说:“Root-Bernstein甚至怀疑美国著名生物学家Stephen Gould也可能也抄袭他了,‘著名作家古尔德也为一家杂志写了一篇科普文章。他使用了相同的论证方式、顺序,但他更换了全部的事例。对于这是否是抄袭,罗伯特觉得不好界定。’Gould已去世,无法为自己辩护。本人能和Gould同列,真是荣幸。”【143】

     

    2、断章取义骗中骗

     

    据古尔德自己说,“‘大脑惟先’观念二十世纪初被普遍接受”这个观点是他在1975年的一篇文章中首先提出的。【144】而据那篇题为《姿势造人》的文章,“大脑惟先”这个观点是德国胚胎学家卡尔·恩斯特··贝尔(Karl Ernst von Baer, 1792-1876)在1828年——即在达尔文出版《物种起源》之前31年——最先提出的。还是根据古尔德,贝尔的这个观点得到响应,是在一百年后,响应之人是英国人类学家“G. E. Smith”。【145】而就是这个人,不仅被古尔德在1975年和1979年当作在二十世纪初主张“大脑惟先”理论的唯一代表,而且在2001年也被谢尔默当作当时“生物学家普遍相信大脑先进化出来”的唯一例子。前面提到,韦纳在说出“皮尔当人的大脑比他的面颊和下颚进化得更快,恰恰迎合了当时的观念”这句话时,举出的第一个佐证也是这个人。

     

    那么,这个“G. E. Smith”是谁呢?他就是前面提到的“皮尔当集团”的大员、全名叫埃利奥特·史密斯。史密斯生于澳大利亚,1895年获得悉尼大学医学博士学位,然后来到英国。1907年,因其在大脑形态学及解剖学方面的成就,史密斯成为英国皇家学会会员,两年后成为曼彻斯特维多利亚大学(Victoria University of Manchester)解剖学教授。【146】史密斯首次提出“大脑惟先”理论,是在19129月召开的不列颠科学协会(British Association for the Advancement of Science)的年会上【147】,也就是在道森和伍德沃德正式宣布发现皮尔当人之前三个月。也就是因为如此,史密斯后来曾得意地说,这个匪夷所思的人—猿杂合怪物“与我的预期完全吻合”【148】确实,在那之后,只要一有机会,史密斯都要宣讲一下自己的这个理论。例如,道森和伍德沃德在公布自己的发现之前,曾特意邀请史密斯为自己的论文作了一篇附录,论证其颅骨铸模之科学与合理。而就在这篇附录中,史密斯用这样一句话来结尾:

     

    “一般来说,大脑的成长领先于身体特征的完善。”【149】

     

    一年后,史密斯又在一篇文章中强调说:

     

    “是大脑的成长首先使猿进入了人的状态。”【150】

     

    1916年,史密斯在不列颠学院(British Academy)做了一个题为《原始人类》的长篇讲演,其中他一边把皮尔当人捧为整个人类学历史上最重大的发现,一边高谈阔论他的“大脑惟先”理论:

     

    “皮尔当颅骨的重大意义就在于它肯定了‘大脑在人类的进化中引领方向’这个观点。千真万确的真理是,人类之所以能够从猿猴状态挣脱出来,就是因为意识结构的丰富。怪异的是,太多的生物学假说没有对这一最为基本的事实给予适当的尊重。在大脑进化到了人类阶段之时,其下颚和面部,以及身体的其他部位,仍旧保留着人类祖先猿猴的大部分劣质特征。也就是说,就人类的外表和‘身材’而言,人类在最初只是一只大脑发育过度的猿。皮尔当颅骨的重要性就在于,它为这样的推理提供了切实的证据。”【151

     

    上面这段话充分说明,第一,史密斯当时既是在利用自己的理论来证明皮尔当人化石的真实存在,又是在利用皮尔当人化石的假想的真实性来证明自己理论的可信性——这是典型得不能再典型的“循环论证”。第二,除了皮尔当人化石之外,史密斯当时手中没有任何其他证据能够证明自己的理论确实成立。第三,史密斯承认,在当时根本就没有几个人拿他的理论——他将之称为“最为基本的事实”——当回事,即没有给予它“适当的尊重”。

     

    总而言之,史密斯关于“大脑惟先”的言论在皮尔当人化石发现之后三四年间几乎是触目皆是、俯拾皆是,但古尔德和谢尔默却“不约而同”地从他在二十年代出版的《人类的进化》(The Evolution of Man)一书中找出同一段话——也就是上面摘录的他在1916年说的那段话——来证明他抱持这样的观点。由此可知这些美国“怀疑论者”也没能遵守方教主立下的“科普”规矩,“阅读原始论文,根据第一手的材料写作”。最奇的是,这两个人都把史密斯那句怨言——“怪异的是,太多的生物学假说没有对这一最为基本的事实给予适当的尊重”——删去了。为什么呢?因为那句话相当于对他们提出的观点,“当时的生物学家普遍相信大脑先进化出来”,的最大否定。

     

    image.png

    断章取义,证成己说

    1916年,英国著名大脑解剖学家史密斯在不列颠学院发表讲演,通过宣传自己的“大脑惟先”人类进化理论来证明皮尔当人化石的真实性和可信性。在那次讲演中,史密斯还抱怨说,当时非常多的生物学假说忽视了他提出的“大脑惟先”理论(上图左红色下线标记)。史密斯的讲演稿当年就在《不列颠学院院刊》上发表,1924年该文被史密斯收入《人类的进化》一书中,该书1927年再版。1979年,古尔德在《重访皮尔当》一文中摘录了史密斯的一段话,以证明当时人们之所以相信皮尔当人骗局,是因为“大脑惟先”观点盛行。而为了使自己的说法能够成立,古尔德故意删去了史密斯的抱怨(上图右上,红色椭圆标记)。2001年,谢尔默在《尸骨大骗局》一文中复述了古尔德的上述说法,并且摘录了史密斯的同一段话当作证据;同样,他也把史密斯的那句抱怨话删去不录。

     

    应该承认,现在一般认为,关于“大脑惟先”理论与皮尔当人的关系,前者是因,后者是果。例如,美国印第安纳波利斯大学人类学教授兰登(John Langdon)在1991年就说,关于这个骗局的通常解释是,它把人类和猩猩的骨头精巧地拼接在一起,为史密斯的理论提供了实物证据。【1522020年,美国俄勒冈大学社会学教授福斯特(John Bellamy Foster, 1953-)说得更为直截了当:皮尔当人骗局就是为了证明“大脑惟先”理论而设计的。【153】可惜的是,这样的断言,并没有翔实的证据做支撑。

     

    如上所述,史密斯首次提出“大脑惟先”理论是在19129月;而如谢尔默和方舟子所说,皮尔当人的重大发现,尤其是找到那个下颌骨,发生在当年的6月。也就是说,皮尔当人化石出土在前,“大脑惟先”理论诞生在后。据《泰晤士报》的报道,在最初,因为这个头骨与在欧洲其他地方发现的史前人类的头骨极其不同,所以伍德沃德等人对之无法解释。【154】也就是在这个关头,史密斯的“大脑惟先”理论应运而生了。这个事实本身就暗示其背后可能藏有猫腻,而如果这个猫腻真的存在的话,它的第一个藏身处就是曼彻斯特维多利亚大学:伍德沃德在1880-1882年间曾在该校接受大学教育,而在皮尔当人出土之际,伍德沃德当年的恩师道金斯(William Boyd Dawkins, 1837-1929)仍在该校任教,并且是史密斯的同事。【155】另一个事实就是,道金斯积极地参与了皮尔当人出台前的幕后运作——他也因此被怀疑是史密斯与伍德沃德之间的牵线人。【1561915年,因为法国著名古生物学家马塞林·蒲勒(Marcellin Boule, 1861-1942)公开质疑皮尔当人,道金斯马上站出来宣布,自己完全同意伍德沃德观点。【157】。

     

    除了道金斯这个内线之外,史密斯还有一个内线,那就是大英自然历史博物馆的馆员威廉·皮克拉夫特(William Plane Pycraft, 1868-1942),他在19121012日——也就是在皮尔当人被正式公布之前两个月——的《伦敦新闻画报》上向英国公众“科普”了史密斯的“大脑惟先”理论。【158】而这个人既是“皮尔当集团”重要成员,又是伍德沃德关于皮尔当人的少数主要顾问之一【159】,同时也是鼓吹皮尔当人、吹捧史密斯及其理论最卖力气之人——他在皮尔当人公布之后仅十天就把它认证为“人类种族历史上最最重要的发现”。【160】显然,除了道森和伍德沃德之外,皮克拉夫特是最早知道皮尔当人化石的第三者。换言之,在抛出“大脑惟先”理论之前,史密斯极有可能已经获得了关于皮尔当人的关键信息。

     

    确实,史密斯本人对装神弄鬼似乎并没有什么心理障碍。1978年,澳大利亚悉尼大学——即史密斯的母校——的科学史学者朗厄姆(Ian Langham,1942-1984)在研究了大量原始资料之后断言,史密斯早就知道澳大利亚发现了所谓的“塔尔盖头骨”(Talgai Skull),但只是在1914年他才假装首次听说此事,并且立即把该头骨当作支持皮尔当人的证据大肆渲染。【161】难怪专门研究十九世纪末二十世纪初人类进化理论的英国科学史学者鲍勒会说,史密斯的那个理论“帮助制造了一个接受皮尔当骗局的舆论氛围”。【162

     

    总而言之,“大脑惟先”理论的横空出世,极可能与“皮尔当人骗局”一样,其本身就是一个天大的骗局。

     

    3、孤家寡说连环骗

     

    前面提到,所谓“当时的生物学家普遍相信大脑先进化出来”导致皮尔当人骗局轻易得逞这个说法,并非源自古尔德,而是来自韦纳。那么,韦纳这么说的根据又是什么呢?答曰:他为自己的论点提供了四条证据:第一是史密斯在19129月的讲演;第二是英国皇家外科医师学会 The Royal College of Surgeons of England)博物馆馆长(Conservator)纪斯(Arthur Keith, 1866-1955)在1925年出版的《远古人类》(The Antiquity of Man)一书的第二版;第三就是剑桥大学解剖学家达克沃思(Wynfrid Lawrence Henry Duckworth, 1870-1956)在1913年说的一句话;第四是牛津大学地质与古生物学教授梭雷斯在1924年出版的《古代猎人》(Ancient Hunters)一书的第三版。事实是,上面的四条证据,没有一条能够成立。

     

    首先,如上所述,皮尔当人的出土与史密斯的理论的问世是即使不是因果关系,那也是前后关系;并且,直到1916年,史密斯本人还在抱怨自己的理论没有得到适当的尊重。其次,纪斯和梭雷斯的书,都是在皮尔当人出土十年以后才出版的,而到了那个时候,皮尔当人已经被英、美学界强行“认证”了;不仅如此,他们的话也与自己早前说的话明显不同。(详见本文附录。)也就是说,这两条证据同样颠倒了因果关系。

     

    那么,达克沃思到底说了什么话呢?按照韦纳的说法,他在1913年说了这样一句话:

     

    “在解剖学方面看,皮尔当头骨在很大程度上实现了人类进化论者的期盼。”【163】

     

    根据韦纳的注释,这句话的来源是道森和伍德沃德的那篇原始论文。【164】其实,那句话出现在整篇论文后面的“讨论”部分;根据上下文,很难判断这句话到底是谁说的。事实是,和纪斯、梭雷斯一样,达克沃斯也是“直立惟先”的信徒——这是他在1912年说的话:

     

    “人类到底是采取直立的姿势在先,还是大脑独特发育在先,这个问题已经争论了很多年。但在这个例子中,证据却显示采取直立的姿势是决定性的一步。在那以后,上肢完全从运动的功能中解放了出来。在它之后,就是下颚和嘴被从感觉器官中解放了出来。同时,头部连接到颈部和躯干的机制也发生了深刻的变化。这种改变为大脑提供了生长和增长的机会,这种增长和增长以前是被否定的,但现在已经证实了,随之而来的是人科动物特有的智力活动”【165

     

    不仅如此,达特沃斯在19136月还曾写信给伍德沃德说:“我仍旧无法让皮尔当的下颌骨在软骨接合处融为一体”。【166】两个月后,他公开表态,说伍德沃德在重建头骨时犯了一个错误,而纪斯的意见是正确的。【1671956年,达特沃斯去世,《自然》杂志的一篇纪念文章中这样写到:

     

    “他对灵长类动物头骨非对称特征的了解是独一无二的,他的经验使他对重建术具有非凡的理解。因此,他始终批评皮尔当颌骨与颅骨的联系。如果他的观点在关于这些化石的较早讨论中给予了重视,那么人类古生物学中的几种声誉可能会比现在少些受到玷污”【168

     

    后来人们发现,虽然达特沃斯与史密斯曾经是室友,但他们二人之间却矛盾甚深。【169】也就是说,无论被韦纳找出的那句话到底是不是达特沃斯说的,它都不能成为当时盛行“大脑惟先”理论的证据。可笑中国著名考古学家李济竟然对韦纳的说法信以为真,说什么“魏纳氏分析此事的经过,以为这一伪装的人类祖先所以得到初期成功最大的原因,是那时的科学界对于人类早期的进展留存在地下的证据有一种期待。……在这四位权威学者领导之下,关于晓人的科学意见差不多近于统一了。”【170

     

    事实是,在1920年之前,“关于晓人的科学意见”从来就没有“统一”过:直到1916年,史密斯还在把皮尔当人称为“争端”(controversy)。【171】也就是为了彻底解决这个“争端”,伍德沃德才不得不在1917年公布了道森两年前的“发现”,即“皮尔当人II”;其目的,用伍德沃德自己的话说就是,要“一劳永逸地摧毁所有异端”。【172】为此,伍德沃德不仅再次请来史密斯为自己保驾护航,他还把纪斯和兰卡斯特也都拉了出来给自己站台。而伍德沃德之所以那么信心满满,又完全是基于概率理论:

     

    “从本文描述的新事实可以得出合理的结论:当初所说的曙人最终将被证明是早期人类的一种确定的和独特的形式;因为在两个不同的位置出现同一类型的额骨和同一类型的下臼齿,增加了它们属于同一个物种的可能性。”【173】

     

    只不过是,“皮尔当人II”并没有如伍德沃德所期盼的那样,让“异端”们闭嘴。1918年,奥斯本在一本书中这样表达了自己的观点:

     

    “最近有人对皮尔当人的下颌骨重新进行了研究,不止一个专家认为它来自成年的黑猩猩。这是我们对其地质学年龄及其与皮尔当人的关系保持怀疑。”【174】

     

    两年后,奥斯本仍旧作壁上观:

     

    “关于皮尔当下颌骨是属于这个人类头骨还是属于黑猩猩化石,这个问题仍然没有得到解决。”【175

     

    实际上,在1920年,连曾经直接参与了皮尔当人发掘并且做出了重大贡献的法国耶稣会神父德日进(Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, 1881-1955)都对皮尔当人将信将疑:

     

    “在过去的十年中,人类古生物学中发生的最重要的一件事情可能就是皮尔当人让人大失所望……好像是故意似的,下颌骨的髁状突消失了!”【176】

     

    据古尔德的理解,德日进说后一句话的目的,是在暗示皮尔当人是一个骗局。【177

     

    1921年,奥斯本在一篇专门讨论皮尔当人的文章中用下面这段话开篇:

     

    “为了得到科学界的认可,关于皮尔当‘曙人’的讨论一直是一场混战。自从地质学家查尔斯·道森在1911年报道了头骨的第一个碎片,并于1913年由道森和亚瑟·史密斯·伍德沃德(后者是大英博物馆的化石部主任)首次告知科学界以来,观点之争就是长期的、激烈的,有时甚至是针锋相对的。这场混战的焦点就是几块头骨碎片、三颗牙齿、一个残缺不全的下颚,为此,大不列颠、西欧、以及北美大陆的杰出解剖学家表达了各种不同的意见。”【178】

     

    也就是说,在皮尔当人问世之后九年,它的可靠性、可信性、真实性仍旧没有得到“普遍接受”。实际上,直到1934年,史密斯还在抱怨说:至今,有些人类学家仍旧认为这个下颌属于一种新的猿类;并且,史密斯仍旧拿“皮尔当人II”,而不是他的“大脑惟先”理论,当作“皮尔当人I”是客观存在的最主要证据。【179

     

    那么,“皮尔当人”这个骗局到底是怎么被“普遍接受”的呢?这是奥斯本在1923年的说法:

     

    “关于皮尔当下颌骨到底属于这个人类头骨还是黑猩猩化石这个问题,现在实际上已经解决了。因为在距第一个标本两英里处,发现了第二具皮尔当人标本,该标本具有相同的下磨齿,并且其前额骨有相同的样式。”【180】

     

    因其名望和地位,奥斯本的这个说法广为流传,所以直到五十年代,还有中国人这样说:

     

    “许多人都怀疑这个破碎的下颌骨和这破颅骨是属于一个人的,因为这颅骨人型化的程度较‘爪哇人’都高,但颌骨则很像钦盘西型,陶伍西氏为怯众人的疑虑,仍继续不断地发掘,很幸运地,于一九一五年又在距第一头发现场所约二英里之遥的地位再度发现了第二块颅骨和一个臼齿,细加研究这新材料所具的形态特征和第一次的完全相似,于是所有疑难一概廓清。”【181】

     

    现在我们当然知道,不论是“皮尔当人I”还是“皮尔当人II”,都是假货、赝品。换句话说就是,直到1917年,英国人还需要通过制造新的骗局来掩盖旧的骗局,而之所以会如此,就是因为旧骗局没能被“普遍接受”。实际上,奥斯本在1923年说的话与他在19181920年说的话前后矛盾,因为在那之前,“皮尔当人II”已经被公布了,但他实际上并没有因为它而接受“皮尔当人I”。那么,奥斯本最终“接受”皮尔当人的真实原因到底是什么呢?

     

    原来,在19217月,奥斯本到英国花了两个小时的时间亲眼观察了皮尔当人化石,虽然化石本身并没有让他感到信服,但他想起了自己母校普林斯顿大学的一句祷告词:“虽然它看上去很怪异,但主啊,它确实是真的”,于是奥斯本宣布自己正式放弃先前的怀疑。【182】你看这像不像是一个笑话?

     

    更大的笑话就是,奥斯本当时还曾向伍德沃德提议,在皮尔当树立纪念碑——而这个纪念碑在1938年终于建成。15年后,它就变成了一根耻辱柱。据后人研究,奥斯本关于人类进化的观点在二十年代发生剧变,而其背后的原因,就是种族主义思想在作祟。【183

     

    image.png

    古今多少事,都在笑谈中

    1921年,美国著名人类学家奥斯本向英国著名人类学家伍德沃德提议在皮尔当遗址建立一个纪念碑以纪念“皮尔当人”的发现(上左,左侧为奥斯本)。19387月,这个纪念碑终于落成,纪斯为其揭幕(上中),伍德沃德与它合影留念(上右)。这个纪念碑在15年后就变成了让英美考古学界蒙羞的象征——2016年,一位荷兰学者特意赶到那里拍照(下),将之称为“伪造品及其伪造者的纪念碑”。【184】。(图片来源:黑白照片从左至右:【182】、sciencephoto.comalamy.com;彩色照片:【184】。)

     

    如果说皮尔当人在美国被“普遍接受”得力于奥斯本的“力排众议”的话,那么,它在英国本土被“普遍接受”,则得力于史密斯的不懈努力。1922年,史密斯与澳大利亚一位名叫亨特(John Irvine Hunter, 1898-1924)的年轻解剖学家利用皮尔当人化石“重建”了皮尔当人头颅模型,其理由是,“对颅骨碎片的仔细检查显示,颅骨与下颌骨在解剖学方面的和谐远大于以前所认为的。”【185】而据《自然》杂志的报道,新模型的一大特点就是颅骨更像类人猿,而其净结果就是“颅骨与黑猩猩般的下巴完全融为一体”——据此,《自然》杂志庄严地宣布:“至此,那个一直让下颌骨不能被接受的绊脚石悖论消失殆尽,因为它无疑属于那个颅骨”【186】换句话说就是,英国的科学家有本事用那几片假化石构建成不同的头颅,其脑容量既可以是最初的一千毫升【164】,也可以是半年后的一千五百毫升【187】;而其形状,既可以与现代人相似,也可以与原始人相似,甚至还可以与类人猿相似——总之就是要证明,在人类的进化历史上,在英格兰的大地上,确曾存在过“皮尔当人”,他们是全人类的祖先。你看这到底像是“真科学”还是“伪科学”?

     

    无论如何,到了1923年,美国人对皮尔当人化石的态度发生了根本的改变——这个改变与“大脑惟先”理论毫不沾边。例如,1925年,也就是在著名的“猴子审判”(Monkey TrialScopes Trial)那一年,美国著名大学的著名教授,如耶鲁大学的古脊椎动物学家卢勒(Richard Swann Lull, 1867-1957)、芝加哥大学的人类学家科尔(Fay-Cooper Cole, 1881-1961)、动物学家纽曼(Horatio Newman, 1875-1957)纷纷出面,把皮尔当人化石拿出来当作人类进化的证据。【188

     

    1931年,美国著名人类学家、哈佛大学教授虎敦(Earnest Hooton,1877-1954)在其《起于猿类》一书中,使用了很多在今天看来十分可笑的理由来为皮尔当人辩护,说到最后,他写道:

     

    “如果皮尔当下颌骨属于那个头骨——对此几乎没有什么合理的疑问——,我们将不得不放弃旧的功能理论,即人的大脑进化是因为颌骨的退化和萎缩,而它们的功能的丧失导致上肢得到解放。”【189

     

    这段话说明,当时流行的“旧的功能理论”就是“直立惟先”理论,而“大脑惟先”理论的出台,就是在为皮尔当人的出台制造舆论。最奇的是,上面这段话在1946年出版的《起于猿类》第二版中消失得无影无踪。为什么呢?因为随着北京猿人的出土,皮尔当人这个怪物比其出土之初更像是一个怪物,而这个怪物又是支撑“大脑惟先”理论的唯一证据。据古尔德说,研究北京猿人的权威魏敦瑞(Franz Weidenreich, 1873-1948)曾在四十年代给纪斯写信说:皮尔当人应当从人类化石的目录中删除,因为其颅骨与下颌骨完全是通过人为的努力才合二而一的。对此,纪斯回答道:

     

    “这是摆脱那些不符合先入为主的理论的事实的一种方法。科学人士的通常方式是,不是摆脱事实,而是构筑适合他们的理论”【190】

     

    纪斯虽然早年因为构建皮尔当人的头颅而与史密斯打得不可开交,但他上面这段话却非常恰当地解释了史密斯“大脑惟先”出炉的背景,那就是为了使怪异的“事实”被人们接受而打造怪异的理论。确实,为了继续给皮尔当人站台,虎敦在1946年也提出了一个新的人类进化理论,即人类的进化是“跳动的,不对称的”,所以皮尔当人这个怪物是可能的因此是可以被接受的。【191】也就是说,如果这个骗局没有被揭穿,关于它的“理论”还会继续出现,而“大脑惟先”理论不过就是这些层出不穷的“理论”的排头兵而已。

     

    1990年,著名科学作家、普利策奖得主威尔福(John Noble Wilford, 1933-)在《纽约时报》的一篇头版文章中说,当年皮尔当人的发现之所以轰动一时,就是因为它与当时流行的理论相悖逆。【192】在笔者看来,这是最接近事实的陈述,也是对韦纳、古尔德等人怪论的直接否定。可惜的是,当时尚未出山的“怀疑论者”谢尔默很可能没有读过这篇文章,结果导致他在11年后学舌古尔德,而这又在7年后把中国的“反伪斗士”方舟子带入了陷阱。

     

    4、种族沙文肆意骗

     

    那么,皮尔当人骗局得逞的真正原因到底是什么呢?这是方舟子给出的第二个答案:

     

    “‘皮尔当人’骗局能够成功的另一个原因还与民族主义有关。在‘皮尔当人’之前,德国发现了尼安德特人化石,法国发现了克鲁马努人化石,英国也迫切需要发现自己的古人类化石——不仅发现了,而且是比德国、法国的化石都要早得多的过渡型化石。英国是人类的故乡!这个民族荣耀足以让许多英国科学家昏了头脑,即使‘皮尔当人’逐渐在其他国家被边缘化后,英国一些古人类学家仍把它当主流。”

     

    不言而喻,上面这段话又是他抄来的。这是谢尔默的自问自答:

     

    “确实,从德国挖出了一个化石宝藏,它始于尼安德河谷的伟大发现,并以它来命名这个我们所有祖先中最著名的祖先。从法国挖出了离我们最近和最先进的亲属,克鲁马努人,他们的洞穴壁画、服装、珠宝和复杂的工具箱使得他们可以发展成真正的文化。在荷兰,比利时以及亚洲和东南亚的零散地区发现了其他化石,包括在中国的北京(‘北京人’)和东南亚的爪哇(‘爪哇人’)的重要发现

     

    “除了英国人之外,好像所有的人都加入了这个人类化石的大围猎。难道人类在英格兰就不进化?难道英国人只是最近才从那个大陆,人类进化的一潭死水,迁徙出来的?在这里哪怕只找到一个古老的人类化石就好了。并且,如果那个原始人与其他地方的发现不同,它清晰地显示一个人类的大脑坐落在更为原始的灵长类动物特征之上,尤其是下颚,那将会让世人多么震惊。心想,就会事成,筑巢,就会来凤——随你怎么理解。1912年,英国人梦想成真。”【193】

     

    而谢尔默的文字,又是来自古尔德的那篇《重访皮尔当》——这是古尔德对自己提出的问题给出的第一个答案,“把自己的意愿强加在可疑的证据之上”(The imposition of strong hope upon dubious evidence):

     

    “在发现皮尔当人之前,英国古人类学处于一个现在研究外星人的学者相似的处境之中:层出不穷的猜想,但却没有任何直接的证据。除了一些貌似人类工艺的燧石‘文化’和一些疑似最近才被埋入古代砾石中的骨头之外,英国对自己的远古祖先一无所知。与之形成鲜明对照的是,法国则幸运地拥有大量的尼安德特人和克鲁马努人的化石以及相关的艺术品和工具。法国人类学家因为拥有各种明显的证据而得意地往英国人的伤口上撒盐。皮尔当人再合适不过地扭转了这种尴尬局面:它看上去远比尼安德特人更古老。如果在眉骨突出的尼安德特人出现之前的几十万年前人类就有了现代人的头颅的,那么皮尔当人肯定是我们的祖先,而法国的尼安德特人则仅仅是一个枝杈。”【194】

     

    古尔德的分析虽然听上去像是那么回事儿,但是,就像他嘲笑的那些“研究外星人的学者”一样,他也根本拿不出什么证据来支撑自己的揣测。不过,如果据此断定古尔德浪得虚名的话,那也未免过于武断,因为前面提到,古尔德对自己提出的问题,给出了四条答案;而在其第二个答案——也就是谢尔默和方舟子的第一个答案,古尔德将之冠名为“通过适应文化偏见来减少异常”(Reduction of anomaly by fit with cultural biases)——中,古尔德还加上了下面这段话:

     

    “皮尔当人还支持了欧洲白人中那些再熟悉不过的种族观点。在二十世纪三、四十年代,在与皮尔当人墓地的地质年代相近的地层中发现了北京人之后,以皮尔当人为根基并且确认白人至上主义的谱系树开始在文献中出现(虽然皮尔当人的主要支持者史密斯·伍德沃德、史密斯和纪斯从未采纳这些观点)。北京人(最初称为中国人,现在被归入直立人)生活在中国,脑容量是现代人三分之二,但拥有完全发育的大脑的皮尔当人则生活在英格兰。如果作为最早的英国人的皮尔当人是白人的祖先,而其他肤色人的祖先是直立人的话,那么白人就比其他种族的人更早地进入到了人类的境界。由于长期处于这种优势状态,白人必定在文明艺术方面出类拔萃”【195】

     

    显然是因为谢尔默没有采纳这个说法,结果让方舟子与之失之交臂。

     

    事实是,恰如古尔德所说,皮尔当人骗局能够得逞的一个原因就是种族主义思潮在作祟;只不过是,古尔德没有把这个原因说成是主要原因;并且,他还莫名其妙地把“皮尔当集团”的三大巨头排除在种族主义者行列之外。事实是,在这《重访皮尔当》这篇文章中,古尔德就说,伍德沃德的《最早的英格兰人》一书的书名带有沙文主义色彩。【196】难道沙文主义能够摆脱种族主义的干系?据说,英国共产党曾经断言,种族主义和法西斯主义乃是一种“深刻渗透到英国分化为阶级的资本主义社会各个时期”的现象。【197】而英国著名马克思主义作家弗莱尔(Peter Fryer, 1927-2006)曾断言:

     

    “从十九世纪四十年代到二十世纪四十年代,不列颠的‘有色人种政策’就是以种族主义为主导的。大英帝国的黄金时代也是英国种族主义的黄金时代。”【198】

     

    古尔德被方舟子称为“信仰马克思主义的西方科学大师”。【199】既然如此,古尔德是不是需要解释一下:为什么“皮尔当集团”就那么特殊,对种族主义思想能够先天免疫?

     

    image.pngimage.pngimage.png

    二十世纪初英国人类学界的“三巨头”

    在皮尔当出土之前,史密斯(左)的主要学术声誉来自他的大脑解剖学,纪斯(右)则来自心脏解剖学,而伍德沃德的专长则是鱼类化石。在皮尔当人出土之后,这三个人马上变成英国人类学界最著名的“人类学界”,并且以此扬名立万。1924年,伍德沃德从大英博物馆退休,当年38日的《伦敦新闻画报》将他列为“本周人物”第一名,注释就是:“他以对皮尔当人头骨的研究而闻名于世。”【200】古尔德后来称此三人是英国人类学及古生物学的三个领军人物【201】,也有人说这三个人是当时英国古生物学或人类学的三巨头(triumvirate)【202】。

    (图片来源:英文维基百科:Grafton Elliot SmithArthur Smith WoodwardArthur Keith。)


    事实是,如果说伍德沃德的种族主义色彩还若隐若现、似有似无的话,那么纪斯则是一个地地道道的、公开的、公认的种族主义者——维基百科就明确地说他是“科学种族主义的倡导者”。【203】实际上,纪斯不仅在三十年代断言非洲的土著从未对世界的文化进步做出过贡献,他还断言当时的中国与旧石器时代的中国没什么两样。【204】至于史密斯,他在这方面完全不输纪斯。

     

    如上所述,奥斯本对皮尔当人的态度改变与其种族主义倾向抬头几乎同步。【183】而在1922年,奥斯本仅仅根据一枚牙齿化石就在灵长目人科下建立了一个全新的属和种,名为“西部世界的类人猿”(Hesperopithecus haroldcookii),俗称“内布拉斯加人”(Nebraska Man)。显然是害怕世人不知道这样重大的发现,奥斯本先是在《美国博物馆通讯》(American Museum Novitates)上面发布“在美国发现第一个类人猿”的公告;接着给《美国科学院院刊》发了一篇通讯;然后在《科学》杂志的首页上报喜。205】而在英国,史密斯似乎比奥斯本还要兴奋:他先是在《泰晤士报》上宣称这是“最早的人类”,比当时公认的最早人类爪哇人还要早【206】;一个月后,他又不顾伍德沃德对奥斯本的质疑【207】,继续在《伦敦新闻画报》上为这个万分可疑的“发现”站台【208】——难怪奥斯本说他“也许表现得太过乐观”。【209】而就是在这篇文章中,史密斯开始大谈“人类谱系”(man's pedigree):最低的就是澳大利亚土著,然后是黑人,再后依次是蒙古人、高山人、地中海人、北欧人。史密斯划分这个谱系的主要依据,就是种族之间的肤色差别,实际上,在他绘制的谱系图中,“减少皮肤中的黑色素”就写在人类种族分化的根基。确实,在史密斯看来,种族的进化过程就是一个压制皮肤中色素形成的过程——这是他的原话:“压抑色素形成的过程在金发的北欧种族中完成得最彻底”。【210

     

    1924年,史密斯将自己先前关于人类进化的三篇文章汇集成书,以《人类的进化》为名出版。史密斯特意为该书的出版加写了一篇前言,题为《人类的谱系》,它基本上就是《西部世界的猿人》一文的改写。【211】进入三十年代,尽管“西部世界的类人猿”早已沦为笑柄,但史密斯的种族观点却益发坚定:“在人类种族的进化过程中,有一个色素化逐渐丧失(的现象)”。【212

    也就是说,无论事实如何变幻,史密斯的理论总是那么斩钉截铁。实际上,显然为了贬低中国人,史密斯还非常敏锐地注意到,日本人的黄皮肤不仅并不那么黄,而且有时与欧洲人一样白。【213】为什么史密斯对日本人会那么含情脉脉呢?显然是因为日本人不仅会模仿西方人制造蒸汽机和战舰,他们还含有比蒙古人种高出两个等级的地中海人血统。【214

     

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    理论大尸史密斯

    1922624日,《伦敦新闻画报》使用两个整版的篇幅发表了美国“内布拉斯加人”的画像,并且配发了史密斯的图解文章,《西部世界的猿人》,其中,史密斯提出根据皮肤中色素的多少来区分人类进化程度的理论。这是史密斯在十年内第二次根据虚假证据炮制“理论”。1927年,“内布拉斯加人”丑闻曝光,所谓的类人猿牙齿被证明是野猪牙齿,但史密斯和《伦敦新闻画报》一样,都装作若无其事,对这个消息不予置评,但他的种族主义理论却继续发展“完善”。1931年,史密斯在一本书中对自己当年的“过分乐观”毫无反省之意,但却反讽奥斯本是一个“过分热情的搜索者”。【215

     

    史密斯的观点不仅影响了英国人,而且还影响了美国人。1927年,奥斯本在美国哲学学会成立二百周年纪念大会上做了一个讲演,其中他展示了两张图,其实就是史密斯五年前绘制的人类谱系图的翻版:第一张把“内布拉斯加人”定位为“最早的人类”(距今大约四百万年);第二张把“白人”置于进化树的顶端。【216】好笑的是,奥斯本的话音还没有落地,他的学生格雷戈里(William King Gregory, 1876-1970)就在《科学》杂志上宣布,“西部世界的类人猿”既非猿,亦非人,而是一头猪。【217

     

    事实是,这头“内布拉斯加猪”不仅激发出了盎格鲁-撒克逊大牌学者的种族主义激情,它还激发出了日耳曼纳粹分子的激情:

     

    “可笑的是,德国有一个‘学者’叫柯赫,在一个专刊上写文章,把‘西方猿’作为现代人类祖先之一,还特地画了一张人类的‘谱系树’图。那时候是二十世纪三十年代前后,德国的种族主义在纳粹党的扶植下正在抬头。柯赫为了拍法西斯纳粹党的马屁,在这个谱系树上,把希特勒宣称是高贵民族的北欧诺狄克族放在居中最高位置上,把‘西方猿’作为它的一个祖先。”【218】

     

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    科学种族主义

    1922624日,《伦敦新闻画报》发表史密斯的文章,介绍在美国发现的“西部世界的类人猿”,其中,史密斯绘制了一张人类进化图,其根基是奥斯本鉴定的“内布拉斯加人”,其顶端是北欧人。1927520日,美国《科学》杂志在首页位置发表了奥斯本三周前在美国哲学学会成立二百周年纪念大会上的讲演稿,题为《近年来与古代人类起源有关的新发现》。这篇文章的重点就是两张图片,其一显示“内布拉斯加人”是最古老的人类;其二就是显示现代人类的进化树,其根基是皮尔当人,其顶端是白人,中国人、黑人、澳大利亚土著都在其下。

     

    按说在全世界面前出了这样大的丑,奥斯本总该收敛一些吧?事实却是恰恰相反——如上所述,进入三十年代以后,奥斯本对皮尔当人的评价越来越高。也就是说,在奥斯本的眼中,皮尔当人确实是个怪物,它既可能是一个一文不值的赝品,也可能是价值连城的珍品,而其定价的根据,除了他本人的信念之外,再无其他。

     

    总而言之,皮尔当骗局“成功”的主要原因,第一就是它迎合了英、美种族主义势力的期盼;第二就是那些信仰“科学种族主义”和“优生学”的科学家打着科学的旗号大搞伪科学。而对于这样的事实,不论是美国的“怀疑论者”谢尔默,还是中国的“反伪斗士”方舟子,全都假装自己是个睁眼瞎。为什么呢?因为那些“科学种族主义者”至今仍被认证为大牌、正牌、王牌“科学家”,而这两个“反伪斗士”又都需要仰仗“科学”这块牌匾来吃饭。实际上,早在皮尔当人丑闻爆发之初,苏联一位叫叶菲缅科的院士就指出,英国人之所以深陷这个骗局,“主要的是由于他们想拿这头骨做他们‘种族优劣论’的根据”。【219】可是,出于某种原因,在中国后来发表的文章中,“种族主义”却变成了“民族主义”,如1976年出版的《十万个为什么》中说:“许多英国科学家也囿于狭隘民族主义情绪,以在英国土地上发现最古老人类化石为荣,拚命为‘曙人’辩护。”【26】十年后,有人继续说,英国人接受皮尔当人化石是“受到狭隘民族主义情绪的驱使”。【220】进入二十一世纪后,民族主义又变成了“国家的虚荣心”,如杜磊就在自己的文章中单立一节,其题目就是“大英帝国的虚荣心”。【16】到了2007年,也就是方舟子科唬“皮尔当人骗局”的前一年,《飞碟探索》杂志发表的文章题目就是《皮尔当人:英国绅士背后的虚荣》。【20】显然,方舟子所说的“民族主义”就是这么来的。

     

    皮尔当骗局能够得逞的另一个原因就是英国人类学家那爆棚般的傲慢与自信:无论自己手中的标本多么零散、琐碎、脆弱,他们都敢据之构建宏阔的理论、做出斩钉截铁般的结论;并且,他们的结论一旦做出,他们就会一口咬定。实际上,考虑到二十世纪初对人体的了解程度,你就会对他们当时的自信感到难以理解。确实,有人就注意到,纪斯在二十世纪的第二个十年中出版的关于人类进化的书籍中,根本就没有“基因”这个词汇——他所津津乐道的是“通过荷尔蒙的遗传”。【221】事实是,即使是在二、三十年代出版的书籍中,纪斯也与“基因”(gene)、染色体(chromosome)、蛋白质(protein)这些概念完全绝缘——连“细胞”(cell)也如凤毛麟角般地罕见。【222】只是在1947年出版的《人类进化的新理论》(A New Theory of Human Evolution)一书中,他才如梦初觉般地大谈“基因”。皮尔当骗局被揭穿之后,为皮尔当集团辩护的说辞几乎都是他们“被骗”。而事实是,他们在当时已经狂妄到以为自己即使指鹿为马,别人也奈何不得的地步。有人就评论说,纪斯当年之所以非要让皮尔当人的脑容量高达1500毫升,就是要以此来证明自己提出的人类进化理论之正确;而史密斯之所以非要让皮尔当人的脑容量减下来,也是出于同样的目的。【223】换句话说就是,那些人当时就是以为自己可以制造“事实”,甚至可以颠倒黑白、无中生有。实际上,他们的这个传统一直延续到今天:201211月,英国的一个包括《自然》杂志主编、英国皇家学会会员在内的“四人帮”,就向当时在中国已经臭名昭著的科学骗子方舟子颁发了一个“科学奖”(John Maddox Prize for Standing up for Science)。【224】而当方舟子的斑斑劣迹被送到他们的鼻子底下之后,他们宁肯装聋作哑做缩头乌龟也坚决不肯修正自己做出的那个错误的、邪恶的决定。【225

     

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    大脑至上,心想事成

    在皮尔当人出土之前,英国人还曾出土了至少两起“最早的英国人”化石:一个是1888年发现的“Galley Hill man”;另一个是1911年发现的“Ipswich man”。“皮尔当集团”大员纪斯(Sir Arthur Keith)在1911-1912年间分别将他们认证为“最早的不列颠人”(The Earliest-Known Briton)(左)和“最早的英格兰人”(The Earliest Known Englishman)(中),距今17万年或“几十万年”。皮尔当人问世后,因为伍德沃德给出的头颅模型(右图,左上)与自己的理论不符,纪斯重新制作了一个模型(右图,右下),将其猿人特征几乎删除殆尽。后来的研究证明,“Galley Hill man”只有三千余年历史(Oakley, K. P. 1963. Dating Skeletal Material.Science 140(3566):488);而“Ipswich man”则不过是旧石器时代晚期(Anonymous. 1942. The Ipswich Man. Nature 149(3786):578),距今至多五万年。(图片来源:《伦敦新闻画报》191134305页、1912323447页、19138161页。)

     

    毫无疑问,英国人类学家的自信既来自“大英帝国”的落日余晖,又来自“白人至上”的黄粱美梦。除此之外,他们的自信还来自他们当时所拥有的“名望”,即他们都是所谓的“权威”。也就是因为如此,道森和伍德沃德在报告自己的发现时,一定要一再提及谁谁谁支持自己的观点,并且把史密斯捧成“在人类大脑方面的最高权威”(the highest authority on the human brain)。【164】而就是在这个“最高权威”的监督之下,伍德沃德犯下了拼凑大脑头骨的关键性错误:按照纪斯的说法,如果皮尔当人当真长着一颗像伍德沃德给他们重建的脑袋的话,则他们不仅不能吃饭、不能喘气,更别提说话了。【226】而史密斯的“大脑惟先”理论就是建筑在这样一个泥塑木雕般的大脑之上的。还有比这更大的笑话吗?

     

    同样,自认对牙齿并无专长【227】、宣称自己早前根本就不相信北美会有类人猿【228】的史密斯之所以会在1922年“过分乐观”地解读“内布拉斯加人”,并且明明知道仅仅根据一颗来路不明的牙齿来建立一个全新的人科物种显得过于轻浮草率【229】,但他却仍旧要一意孤行,其原因就是他认为鉴定那颗牙齿的美国人都是权威【230】——最好笑是是,即使在遭到另一个“权威”伍德沃德的质疑之后,史密斯仍旧拿这个理由来为自己辩护。【231】也就是因为自视过高、迷信权威,所以他们才会对“小人物”的观点、建议不屑一顾。1925年,有消息说,“内布拉斯加人”的牙齿被弄碎了,于是史密斯通过《泰晤士报》建议奥斯本利用这个破碎的牙齿来做显微检查来确定其来源,因为他早期的建议被奥斯本以那样的测验会损坏标本为由回绝的。【232】史密斯的信,引来了一个名叫莱恩(W. Courtney Lyne)的牙医,他给《泰晤士报》写信说,自己九年就曾向皮尔当人专家们做出了类似的建议。【233】显然,莱恩当年的建议被那些权威当成了耳旁风,否则的话,这个骗局早在1916年就被戳破了。(关于莱恩质疑皮尔当人的故事,见本文附录。)事实是,就在伍德沃德宣读论文之际,英国伦敦大学解剖学教授戴维·沃特斯顿 David Waterston, 1871-1942)就指出,极难相信一个现代人的颅骨会与一个黑猩猩的下颌骨同时出现在一个个体上;并且,他还指出,皮尔当人的一块叫做“颞窝”(glenoid fossa)的颞骨(temporal bones)是完整的,伍德沃德也认为它是现代人的;但这块骨头恰恰是与下颌骨关联的,因此,下颌骨如果是黑猩猩的,它应该发生某种改变——而它与现代人完全一样,正说明其连接的下颌骨不可能是黑猩猩的。【164】你以为“在人类大脑方面的最高权威”对这样简单的知识、这么浅显的道理都搞不清楚弄不明白吗?

     

    总而言之,皮尔当骗局之所以能够得逞,最主要的原因就是英国人发自骨子里的那种狂妄和傲慢;而他们之所以会有那样的狂妄和傲慢,其根源就在于“白人至上”这个种族主义信念,而这个信念被延续了百余年的“日不落帝国”的国力日益强化。所以说,如果这个病根不除,皮尔当骗局早晚都会在英伦三岛重新上演——实际上,他们在皮尔当人骗局问世一百周年之际给方舟子颁发“野基奖”,就是在明目张胆地上演“皮尔当骗局”之二。

     

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    英国佬与方舟子

    202059日,因为《自然》杂志日前发表了职业华黑、方粉记者David Cyranoski的一篇黑华文章,我在《自然》杂志的推特账号下张贴了我多年前揭露该记者肆意造谣、故意造假的文章截图及链接。《自然》当天就把我拉黑了。(见:May 9, 2020。)同样,四年前,因为在推特上揭露方舟子的“假打假”恶行,方舟子以闪电般速度把我拉黑。(见:Aug 14, 2016。)也就是因为反华、黑华的本性相同,并且自以为可以一手遮天,《自然》杂志在2012年伙同英国一家转基因公关公司向方舟子颁发了一个“野基奖”。


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  • 亦明_:三、文抄公东抄西凑

    三、文抄公东抄西凑

     

    早在本世纪初,在与哈佛大学科学家吴柏林争夺中国的科普市场时,方舟子就曾以“科学教主”自居,狂妄地给中国的“科普作家”立下了两条规矩:

     

    我以前一再强调,科普著作应该由专家撰写,因为只有专家才可能具有必要的学科知识,并能阅读原始论文,根据第一手的材料写作。”【44】

     

    现在当然谁都知道,方舟子在“科普”时,不仅根本就不可能“具有必要的学科知识”,他实际上连“阅读原始论文,根据第一手的材料写作”这一条要求都不能做到。而《皮尔当人骗局》这篇文章的意义所在,就是彰显“‘方舟子科普’骗局”。

     

    1、五大谬误

     

    如上所述,关于皮尔当人骗局的资料,不仅是堆积如山,而且还是千真万确的“俯拾皆是”,因为早在2001年,美国克拉克大学的一个网站,“The Piltdown Plot”,就把相关的原始材料网罗一空,对外公布。可是,文史畸才方舟子却总是如蝇逐臭般地到故纸堆中把那些二、三手的、并且是不那么靠谱的文章找出来,当作自己抄袭的依据。更让人不解的是,即使是在抄袭可靠的文献时,方舟子也有本事制造出具有云霄假烟味道的方氏谬误。例如,谢尔默明明说1914年发现的那件“似乎被人为加工当棍棒来用的化石是大象大腿骨(“fossilized thigh bone from an elephant),这是没错的,因为道森和伍德沃德在其原始报告中就推测说它只能来自长鼻目动物的股骨femur)。【45】可是,按照方舟子,它是一根象牙。显然,方舟子当时抄错了对象。果然,在方舟子经常光顾的talkorigins.org——方舟子曾将之誉为“网上反神创论的大本营”【46】——,就把那块骨头称为“象牙”(an elephant tusk)【47】。

     

    一般来说,方舟子在抄袭之际犯错是随机的、偶然的;但当他力图原创时,则其犯错却是必然的,并且还是连续不断的。看看他的这段话:

     

    “此后的40年间,皮尔当人都被认为是更新世时期的化石,距今大约50万年,这是根据与皮尔当人一起出土的古生物化石认定的。40年后,古生物学家掌握了更精确的年代鉴定技术。1952年,牛津大学古人类学教授K.P.奥克利开发出通过测定氟的含量来鉴定古生物化石年代的方法,他用这个方法对皮尔当人下颌骨进行测定,发现其年龄大概只有5万年,做为猿-人过渡型化石显然太年轻了。”

     

    这短短的两句话、158个字中,含有至少五个错误:

     

    第一,方舟子说“此后的40年间,皮尔当人都被认为是更新世时期的化石”,这句话大致是不错的,但是他画蛇添足的半句话,“距今大约50万年”,却是大错特错。这是因为,在当时,人们对地球年龄的估计不仅远没有现在估计得那么长,而且还众说纷纭,从几百万年到十亿年不等。【48】例如,牛津大学地质与古生物学教授、皇家学会会员威廉·梭雷斯(William Johnson Sollas, 1849-1936)——他相信皮尔当人为真(下详)——在1900年估计的地球年龄是大约2600万年,更新世(Pleistocene)距今只有40万年;但到了1909年,他估计的地球年龄就增长到了8000万年。【49】很可能是根据这样的估计,“皮尔当集团”成员在最初或者含含糊糊地说皮尔当人生活在“几十万年前”【50】,或干脆就说是在40万年前【51】。而这个集团的另一位大员史密斯(Grafton Elliot Smith, 1871-1937)则在1914年表示,皮尔当人很可能只有五万年的历史。【52】与这些人形成鲜明对照的是,伍德沃德本人一直使用地质年代来定位皮尔当人,以不可计算为由拒绝给出具体的年代数字。【53】伍德沃德的这个态度显然是来自他在曼彻斯特大学的地质学导师道金斯(William Boyd Dawkins, 1837-1929),因为他曾说过这样的话:“它不能被年代来衡量,而只能根据地质事件的顺序及动物生命的变化(来确定)。”【54】也就是因为众说纷纭,所以在1920年出版的《世界史纲》一书中,威尔士根据德国地质学家彭克(Albrecht Penck, 1858-1945)的说法,将皮尔当人定位在10万年前。【56

     

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    英国皮尔当集团

    上图为英国画家库克(John Cooke)绘制完成的一幅油画,题为“讨论皮尔当人颅骨”(Discussion on the Piltdown Skull),显示在1913811日召开的一次集会。该画于1915年首次在英国皇家艺术学院(Royal Academy)展出,为此,不仅《自然》杂志发布了消息【56】,连将自己的主要精力用于报道第一次世界大战的《伦敦画报新闻》都拿出半页的篇幅刊登了这幅画作【57】。画中人物都是英国研究并且相信“皮尔当人”的主力和干将。注:“皮尔当集团”(the Piltdown group)这个称呼,在1922年就已经出现;到了六十年代,有人将之戏称为“皮尔当委员会”(The Piltdown Committee)【58】。

    (图片来源:维基百科Piltdown Man。)

     

    那么,“距今大约50万年”这个说法到底是怎么来的呢?原来,美国头号人类学家、在1908-1933年间担任美国自然历史博物馆馆长的奥斯本(Henry Fairfield Osborn, 1857-1935)在1920年发表了一篇文章,介绍该博物馆中关于人类进化历史的馆藏。在这篇文章中,奥斯本说了这样一句话:

     

    “在最古老的化石中,也许在公元前50万年,有来自英格兰皮尔当的几块颅骨碎片。”【59】

     

    当时正是第一次世界大战结束之际,美国在国际上的地位狂飚猛进,已经超越了其宗祖国,所以尽管奥斯本在文章中还说了皮尔当人“坏话”,即说其下颌骨与颅骨是否同属一个人还存在争议(a jaw which is still a matter of controversy),但他的文章仍被英国人当成了宝贝,其节缩本被《伦敦新闻画报》和《自然》杂志先后发表。【60】到了1923年,奥斯本在接受媒体采访时,说了这样一段话:

     

    “现代科学能够估算出制造工具及使用燃烧的人及其直系祖先的年龄,大约五十万年。”【61】

     

    根据上下文,奥斯本说的那个“人”,就是皮尔当人。在那之后,“距今大约50万年”这个说法开始被英国人接受。【62】但是,进入三十年代以后,因为种种原因,奥斯本对皮尔当人的评价越来越高,不仅宣布他们是人类的直系祖先,而且还宣布他们生活在一百万年前,比北京猿人早了或者整整25万年【63】,或者8万年【64】。显然是根据这些说法,著名历史学家杜兰特(Will Durant, 1885-1981)在其1935年出版的名著《世界文明史》中说,皮尔当人生活在公元前一百万到一百二十五万年。【65

     

    1953年,皮尔当骗局被揭穿后,本来美联社发了一个通稿,其中说皮尔当人当初被定位在10-60万年前【66】,但《纽约时报》却发了一篇特稿,其中说了这样一句话:

     

    “不仅如此,据说这个头颅的顶冠是真的,但却比以前所说的50万年年轻很多,只有5万年。”【67】

     

    两年后,破获皮尔当人骗局的第一功臣韦纳(Joseph Sidney Weiner, 1915-1982)的《皮尔当骗局》一书出版,其中,他也采用了50万年这个说法。【68】在那之后,这个说法才再次流行。例如,美国公共电视台WGBH1998年制作了一个“人类进化”节目,其中提到皮尔当人,就采用了上述说法。【69】同年,天津科技翻译出版公司在1998年出版的一本书中这样写道:

     

    “1911年,英国的陶逊律师声称,他在辟尔唐发现了一个猿人头盖骨的破片和半个下颌骨,他把这两样东西送给了当时有名的人类史学家,大英博物馆博士伍德华进行考证,伍德华接到陶逊的报告,来到辟尔唐,和陶逊一起在砾石坑中进行挖掘,1913年,他们又在那里发现了动物化石、石器以及人类的犬齿化石。如果他们如实地报告他们的发掘结果,也许在考古和人类学史上不失为有一定的意义。然而他们被发现欲所驱使,他们把发现的物品进行整修,不顾事实,竟敢冒天下之大不韪,公然宣布他们发掘出了一种半猿半人的生物头盖骨。还胡说这种生物生活在大约50万年以前。由于伍德华的权威地位,他的宣布就成为一时定论,他们的发现就在人类学史上被命名为‘陶逊氏早期人’即‘辟尔唐人’。”【70】

     

    而就在方舟子科唬“皮尔当人骗局”之前一两年,这种说法更是甚嚣尘上:

     

    “1913年,道森和英国著名人类学家伍德沃德宣布,他们发掘出可一个半猿半人的生物头盖骨,并说这种生物生活在大约50万年以前。”【71】

     

    显然,科唬作家方舟子的“此后的40年间,皮尔当人都被认为……距今大约50万年”这个说法就是这么道听途说、以讹传讹得来的。

     

    第二,“K.P.奥克利Kenneth Page Oakley, 1911-1981)既不是什么教授,也与牛津大学没有任何关系。据《大英百科全书》和《泰晤士报》发表的讣告【72】,奥克利于1933年毕业于伦敦大学学院(University College London),1938从该校获得博士学位,就学期间(1935年)就开始在大英自然历史博物馆工作,一直在那里工作到退休(1969年)。实际上,在那篇揭假报告的封面,就写着他的工作地址:Department of Geology, British Museum (Natural History)。【73】那么,方舟子的错误到底是从哪儿来的呢?原来,当时的维基百科就是那么说的。【74

     

    第三,“通过测定氟的含量来鉴定古生物化石年代的方法根本就不是奥克利开发出的。事实是,早在1805年,意大利化学家莫里基尼(Domenico Morichini, 1773-1836)就已经发现骨化石中存在氟元素。【75】四十年后,奥克利母校一位名叫米德尔顿(James Middleton)的化学家提出通过测定尸骨中氟的含量来推测它们的地质年龄的想法,并且还对自己的想法进行了验证。【76】半个世纪后,法国化学家阿道夫·卡诺(Adolphe Carnot, 1839-1920)也使用这一方法鉴定化石的年代。【77】实际上,直到1947年,也就是在奥克利开始使用这种方法检测骨化石之前一年,还有人对这种方法进行了该进。【78

     

    事实是,在其首次提出利用氟含量来确定皮尔当人化石年龄的文章中,奥克利引用的第一篇文献就来自卡诺【79】,并且在另一篇文章中说:“人们早就知道,骨化石会随着时间的推移而累积氟元素”【80】也就是因为如此,一本2000年出版的考古学百科全书才会说这样的话:

     

    “肯尼斯·奥克利发现了法国矿物学家阿道夫·卡诺于1892年发表的一篇长期被忽视的论文,该论文涉及骨化石随年龄的变化而吸收氟元素。”【81】

     

    其实,尽管奥克利没有直接引用米德尔顿的文章,但有事实证明他确实知道那篇文章的存在。【82】那么,方舟子的这个错误又是怎么来的呢?当然是抄来的,因为当年的维基百科就是那么说的。【83

    image.png 

    早已有之

    1845年,英国化学家米德尔顿在《伦敦地质学会季刊》上发表文章,证明尸骨化石中的氟含量与其地址年代呈正相关,年代越久远,含氟量越高。一百多年后,米德尔顿的校友奥克利利用这种方法检查了皮尔当人化石,因此引发这一骗局的彻底败露。

     

    第四,“通过测定氟的含量来鉴定古生物化石年代的方法根本就不是什么精确的年代鉴定技术。恰恰相反,它对年代的确定,只能是通过相对比较。这个方法的原理就是,骨骼会吸收(富集)周围环境中的氟元素,导致其含量随时间的推移而逐渐增高。不言而喻,相同年龄的化石中的氟含量会因为所在地点的不同而不同,因此仅根据一个样品中的氟含量根本无法确定其绝对年代,遑论精确的年代。实际上,奥克利论文的标题就说它是“相对纪年”(Relative Dating);并且,一年后,奥克利还在抱怨说,这个方法不能给出精确的“相对年龄。【84】又过了四年,奥克利再次警告说:以为化石中的氟含量会指示该化石的地质年龄是一个错误。【85

     

    第五,奥克利“用这个方法对皮尔当人下颌骨进行测定是在1949年,而不是在“1952年”。这是奥克利在1949年宣布的:

     

    “与官方化学家合作,大英自然历史博物馆已经对所有可以使用的皮尔当材料进行了氟测试。”【86】

     

    只不过是,奥克利所得到的结果与自己的信念——即“皮尔当人是真实的”——不符,所以,他在公开场合对其结果所作的解释就故意支支吾吾,语焉不详,先是说它们不到十万年【87】,然后说它们位于“最后温暖间冰期。【88】而只有在不那么正式的场合,并且在口头上,他才会明确地说它们大约只有五万年。这是当时美国《大众科学》杂志一篇报道中的一句话:

     

    “1950年,一项化学系年测验说服了大英博物馆地质学家肯尼斯·奥克利博士,皮尔当遗骸只有五万年的历史,而不是五十万年”【89】

     

    这是另一本关于皮尔当人骗局的专著中的一段话:

     

    “在1952年6月举行的温拿格伦国际研讨会上,奥克利告诉他的同事说,皮尔当人并非像奥斯本所估计的那样,生活在一百万年前;他们甚至连基思估计的20万年都不到,只有大约五万年。但是,曙人确曾存在过。”【90】

     

    实际上,恰恰是因为不敢从自己的结果中得出顺理成章的结论,奥克利才会质疑氟含量方法的误差和可靠性。而时任罗格斯大学(Rutgers University)人类学系主任的英裔美国人阿什利·蒙塔古(Ashley Montagu, 1905-1999)在奥克兰成就大名之前几天则说他是“刻意地谨慎估计”,以为今后的高估留一条后路。【91

     

    2、盲人摸象

     

    早在2008年,我就曾证明科唬作家方舟子有本事在280个字中犯下“十个关于科学哲学和科学史的错误”。【92】一年后,我又证明,文史畸才方舟子有能耐在377个字中犯下与明代历史有关的十大谬误。【93】所以,“科学史专家方舟子158个字中犯下5个科学历史错误,对我来说完全是“司空见惯”。事实是,方舟子在科唬‘皮尔当人骗局时,犯下的错误远不止于上面这4个。这是他接下来的话:

     

    19537月,伦敦开了一次古生物学会议,奥克利与两名古生物学家共进晚餐时谈到皮尔当人化石,都觉得这个化石与其他猿人化石格格不入,显得很蹊跷,有必要对其做一番仔细鉴定。之后,他们采用同位素技术、化学方法、X射线、显微技术等多种方法对皮尔当人及相关化石做了分析,证明了它是一个赝品:它的头颅是中世纪(大约500年前)现代人的头颅,下颌骨是现代猩猩的,犬齿是黑猩猩的。它们用铁溶液与铬酸浸泡过,以显得年代久远。石器是用现代工具打磨出来的。动物化石则是从外地收集来的。这是一个精心策划的骗局

     

    上面这二百多字中,含有三个谬误:第一,19537月在伦敦召开的那次“古生物学会议”与皮尔当人化石根本就没有任何直接的关系。其次,没有记录表明,在那次会议上,奥克利等人确曾“觉得这个化石与其他猿人化石格格不入,显得很蹊跷”。第三,奥克利等人“之后”对相关化石进行的分析,并没有使用“同位素技术”和“X射线”。

     

    事实是,关于那次会议,最原始的记述来自前面提到的那个韦纳,他是南非人类学家,当时正在牛津大学从事研究。而那次会议对他之所以如此重要,只有一个原因,那就是他偶然听到奥克利透露了这样一个信息:道森在生前并没有将第二具皮尔当人化石发现的具体位置明确标记。这个信息引起了韦纳的警觉——因为皮尔当人之所以能够被“普遍接受”,最主要的原因就是道森在1915年发现了所谓的“皮尔当人II”(下详)——,使他开始怀疑整个事件很可能是一场骗局。【94

     

    那么,方舟子那一大套到底是哪儿来的呢?看看吴汝康的这段话:

     

    “1953年7月30日在英国自然博物馆举行有关非洲早期人类的会议时,组织了会议代表参观了地质系,展示了著名的皮尔唐遗骸。许多人是第一次见到这些真的标本,自然引起了激动,显然意见也是像过去那样分歧。其中一个人是韦纳(Joseph S. Weiner),他是出生于南非的体质人类学家,在约翰内斯堡受过达特的训练,当时在牛津大学解剖系勒·格罗斯·克拉克教授处工作。会议期间晚餐时,韦纳与奥克利和美国芝加哥大学的沃什伯恩(Sherwood Washburn)(也是皮尔唐人怀疑论者之一)交谈了皮尔唐人存在的一些问题。韦纳当晚回到牛津后,脑子里总是在想着这个问题,彻夜不眠。他设想皮尔唐下颌骨和那个犬齿是伪造的化石。”【95】

     

    在这篇文章的后面,吴汝康罗列了25篇参考文献,但其中却偏偏没有韦纳的那本书。也就是说,方舟子的那些错误,即使不是直接来自吴汝康的文章,也是从类似的文章中东抄西凑搞来的。值得一提的是,方舟子在2003年曾撰文指控吴汝康抄袭,但全篇文章却没有拿出一条具体证据。【96

     

    如上所述,尽管奥克利是当时掌握与皮尔当人有关资料最多的人,但他却一直相信——至少在公开的场合他要给人这种印象——皮尔当人是真的。而所谓皮尔当人是真的,一是指其年代足够久远,二是指那个颅骨和下颌骨确实是来自同一个,而不是来自两个毫不相干的动物。显然,根据自己的测试结果,奥克利无法在第一点上为皮尔当人辩护,所以他就坚守第二条底线,说自己的结果更能够证明那两个骨头是同一个的:

     

    “氟测试的结果大大增加了下颌骨和颅骨来自同一个生物的可能性。”【97

     

    最奇的是,奥克利早就注意到了皮尔当人牙齿上的打磨痕迹,但迟至1950年底他还要先入为主地诱导他人以为那是由于河沙的冲磨造成的。【98】可是,当他决定“打假”之后,他干的第一件事情就是给自己表功,说他早在1949年就曾暗示皮尔当人化石中的骨器是伪造的。【99

     

    事实是,奥克利之所以会加入打假的队伍,最主要、最直接的原因就是他受到韦纳的推动,因为后者在19537月之后就对那些化石的真伪起了疑心,并且力主对它们进行重新检验。但因为知道奥克利的立场,怕被他拒绝,韦纳就拉上了自己的老板、牛津大学解剖学教授、皇家学会会员克拉克爵士(Sir Wilfrid Edward Le Gros Clark, 1895-1971)。只是在受到后者的直接质疑之后,奥克利和大英博物馆才同意了韦纳的建议。也就是因为如此,韦纳才会成为那篇推倒多米诺骨牌论文的第一作者,尽管他本人既不是古人类学家,也不是化学家。看看那篇论文前言中的这句话:

     

    “直到我们中的一个人(韦纳)在私下讨论过程中,真诚而坦率地提出这个建议,认为它是揭开皮尔当之谜的唯一途径,并且指出皮尔当人下颌骨的有机成分还从未被检测过,通过试验证明,对黑猩猩的牙齿进行人工磨蚀并加上适当的染色后,其外观与皮尔当人的臼齿和犬齿惊人地相似,只是在那之后,我们才决定对所有皮尔当人的材料重新进行严格的研究,并且考虑造假这个特殊的可能性”【100】

     

    1983年,也就是在韦纳去世后,英国《古董》杂志发表了韦纳生前一位助手的文章,详述当时的经过。这是该文的结尾:

     

    “由于氟测试的决定性意义,许多人以为奥克利是揭露皮尔当骗局的主要推动者。事实是,在那个事件中,尽管他始终充满热情,勤奋刻苦,坚忍不拔,小心谨慎,但他的角色在实质上只是支持与合作。揭露这个骗局并因此而澄清了我们对人类进化形态趋势的整体理解的主要功劳必须归之于韦纳”【101】

     

    其实,这样的事实,人们早就知道,所以古尔德才会在1979年说这样的话:

     

    “然后,在1949年,肯尼斯·奥克利将他的氟测试应用于皮尔当遗骸。……皮尔当的头骨和下颌骨都几乎检测不到氟,它们在砾石中的时间不能太长。奥克利仍然没有怀疑伪造。他提出,皮尔当人不过就是相对较近的骨头混进了古代砾石中而已。但几年后,在与韦纳和克拉克的合作中,奥克利最终考虑了明显的替代选项:那些骨头是在本世纪才混进去的,而其目的就是欺诈。”【102】

     

    这是吴汝康的叙述:

     

    “韦纳也深信犬齿的特殊性状可用精心伪造来解释。他认为所有这些证据就足以定案。可是他又如何能使奥克利相信,引起他的注意而保证能看到真正的化石原件来检验他的假设而不会造成一个诽谤罪名呢?因为真标本是保存在奥克利所在的地质系的,他不能肯定奥克利会怎样反应。经过一个星期的大部分时间对他的假设的仔细考虑,韦纳最后决定把这个问题告诉他的教授勒·格罗斯·克拉克,征求他的意见。韦纳提出的各种证据,使他的教授信服和得到支持。韦纳说出他对奥克利的顾虑。两人商定由克拉克打电话给奥克利,而不是写信,奥克利答应再仔细检查真的标本,约定内部保密,先勿对外声张。”【95】

     

    所以说,方舟子对韦纳只字不提,不但说明他在科唬‘皮尔当人’骗局时对这个骗局的内幕茫然无知,而且还说明他在拼凑这篇文章时完全依靠单一或者极少数信息来源,所以他才会偏听偏信,错误连连。那么,方舟子这个失误是怎么来的呢?答曰,或者来自谢尔默,因为谢尔默对韦纳在揭露这个骗局中的决定性作用只字未提;或者来自维基百科,因为它只是在结尾处才首次提到韦纳的名字。

     

    如上所述,戳破皮尔当骗局的最重要一篇文章,也是最早的一篇,是19531121日问世的。这篇文章问世的当天,英国《泰晤士报》就以《皮尔当人骗局》为题报道了这个消息。【103】而美国《纽约时报》在次日报道此事的标题则是《皮尔当人骗局被揭穿:颌骨来自猿,颅骨相当晚近》。【104】也就是说,韦纳等人的这篇文章足以让这个骗局彻底破产。而他们所使用的方法,除了肉眼及双筒显微镜观察之外,只有化学方法——测量化石中氟和氮的含量。实际上,当这篇文章的摘要在《自然》上发表时,其标题就是《辟尔唐化石的化学检验》。【105】也就是因为单纯根据化学检验的结果,所以该文才会得出一项极为关键的错误结论,即那个颅骨是真实的,属于上更新世(距今大约5万年)。也就是说,“同位素技术“X射线”在最初根本就没有发挥任何作用——它们被用于皮尔当人骗局,是在1955年发表的另一组论文中。【106】至于把年代精确到“大约500年前,则还要再等4年——其原因,奥克利说得很清楚,那就是,在那之前,做同位素测验需要的样品量太大,取得这些样品将会对原物造成破坏。【107】那么,方舟子的这个错误又是怎么犯下的呢?原来,1981年,《课外学习》杂志发表了一篇文章,题为《年龄的铁证——碳14》,其中有这样一段话:

     

    “碳14既然可以测定出土文物年代,也就可以用来辨别文物的真假。在这里,给大家讲一个十分有趣的故事:1911年,英国有个名叫道逊的律师,他宣称发掘出了古人类的头骨和石器。消息一传开,不少考古学家,古人类学家大为振奋,有人认为找到了人类发展中失去了的某个环节,甚至有人还把这个发现命名为‘道逊曙人’。当时,尽管有不少著名的学者也表示怀疑,但是由于没办法鉴别这些化石的真假,也就无可奈何,只好听任这谎言漫延世界。直到五十年代初,用碳14鉴定年代的方法出现之后,人们用它把道逊的所有标本一测定,才戳穿了骗局。原来,所谓古人类的头骨,实际是一只现代猿的下颌骨,是预先埋到地下去的。”【108】

     

    据方舟子自己说,他在上中小学时,“有时间阅读大量的课外读物”。【109】毫无疑问,《课外学习》就是方舟子的“课外读物”之一。而上面那段话,显然被方舟子牢牢记住,所以他从1999年起就信誓旦旦地说“所以在五十年代同位素测定法一被发明,马上就被用来测定其真伪,被证明是伪造的”【14】、辟尔唐人“直到1953年才被用同位素法确认为赝品”【110】这样的话,并且一直说到2008年。

     

    3、乌鸦学舌

     

    本来,对于一个稍微有点儿羞耻感的人来说,在一篇不到两千字的文章中能够犯下如此之多的错误,足以将他臊得钻进地洞。但是,“美国博士”方舟子之所以被称为巨骗,就是因为他完全彻底地没羞没臊。所以,他的错误几乎是川流不息。这是方舟子在文章的开篇说的话:

     

    “‘皮尔当人’是科学史上最著名的骗局之一,在近百年之后它的真相仍然没有完全搞清。”

     

    其实,所谓的真相仍然没有完全搞清完全是英国佬们搞的一个噱头——他们从一开始就把这起科学欺诈案定性为“恶作剧”(Hoax)而不是其他【73】——,其目的,就是要把我们当初为什么那么傻这个问题转化成“他们为什么会那么坏到底是谁那么坏这样的问题。例如,《泰晤士报》在报道这个骗局之初就说:“很多人会问这样的问题:‘这是谁干的?’”(but ‘who did it?’ is a question many will ask.)然后把矛头直指道森。【103】紧接着,他们又找出人来为道森辩护。【111】于是,这个炒作就开始了。据美联社报道,丑闻被揭露之后,英国皇家学会会长、1932年诺贝尔生理学或医学奖得主埃德加·阿德里安男爵(Edgar Adrian, 1889-1977)的表态是:“非常伤感,但更为有趣”;另一位名叫Hergert Fleure的“人类学权威”则说,这是一个懂得科学知识的人设计的非常聪明的骗局;这个人也许只是想搞个恶作剧。【112】几年后,这个骗局又被称为“辉煌的恶作剧”。【113】那意思好像是在说,“看看俺们英国人多聪明、多幽默、多会玩儿!”也就是因为如此,在这个骗局一百周年之际,《自然》杂志还要发表专文讲解为什么“这是谁干的?”这个问题需要继续追究。【114

     

    其实,英国佬的这个障眼遮羞把戏,早就被有识之士看穿。例如,加拿大多伦多大学社会学家哈蒙德(Michael Hammond)就说:“那些试图在这个谜团中找出‘谁干的’种种努力,在某种程度上掩盖了人类学历史上一个更为重要的问题,即,是什么导致如此众多的杰出科学家接受这个骗局?”【115】而英国科学史学者鲍勒(Peter J. Bowler, 1944-)则说,看到那么多人把精力挥霍在这种无聊的侦探小说般的“谁干的”上面,让我感到愤怒。【116】同样,耶鲁大学人类学家马克斯(Jonathan M. Marks, 1955-)也说:“作为一个科学造假案的原型,皮尔当人骗局提出的问题是科学程序:造假是怎么成功的?在科学中,什么样的结构阻止了这个骗局被发现?”【117】实际上,连《华盛顿邮报》的编辑在骗局被揭之初就马上意识到,这个骗局所揭示的,就是当时被吹破了天的所谓“科学方法”距离至善至美还有相当遥远的距离。【118

     

    事实是,因为当事人都已作古,对于“谁干的”这个问题的答案注定是众说纷纭,莫衷一是,因此它只能是一桩专供人们八卦的无头公案。因此,方舟子学舌英国佬,就显得特别的滑稽和可笑。但更为可笑的是,他在学舌英国佬之际又闹出了一个国际笑话:

     

    “我只举一个例子说明为什么这个案件如此难以定案。1996年英国《自然》报道说,在大英自然历史博物馆动物馆原馆长马丁·辛顿(1961年去世)留下的箱子中发现一些化石、牙齿等,类似于在皮尔当发现的东西,而且还发现了用来给化石染色的化学药品。这似乎可以做为辛顿策划‘皮尔当人’骗局的铁证。但是随后有人指出,辛顿用的化学药品与用来给‘皮尔当人’染色的化学药品并不相同,辛顿可能是在骗局被揭露后做的试验,想搞清楚道森是怎么造假的。”

     

    且不说对辛顿的指控早在1978年就已出现【119】,4年后甚至还有人在书中详细地描述了他的作案动机【120】,只说方舟子上面这段话中的最后一句:事实与之完全相反。原来,根据《自然》的文章,“辛顿用的化学药品与用来给皮尔当人染色的化学药品”不是“并不相同”,而是完全相同

     

    现在事实证明,皮尔当的所有遗骸都被用同一个化学配方染色,这个配方就是辛顿发明的。”【121

     

    不仅如此,这篇文章中还有这样一句话:

     

    “重要的是,库洛特和加德纳对辛顿箱子中的物品进行了分析,结果表明它们富含铁和锰,其含量与皮尔当标本中的含量相同。”【92】

     

    见此,一个叫豪尔(Edward Thomas Hall, 1924-2001)的人致信《自然》,根据自己的博士学位论文说,在皮尔当人化石中,并没有检测到锰;同时,他还指出《自然》杂志前一篇文章中所说的“用铬酸处理化石,以使骨磷灰石变成石膏”缺乏科学根据。【123】也就是根据这样的信息,有人在“网上反神创论的大本营”写道:

     

    对辛顿的指控并不像看上去那么完美无缺。加德纳提出的动机(关于金钱的争吵)由于时间不合而不能成立;有关事件发生在1911年,而皮尔当的最早发现是在1908年。更重要的是化学分析不匹配。辛顿的样品中包含锰,但皮尔当的标本中则没有锰。辛顿的样品中不含有石膏(由有机材料生产),但皮尔当的标本中含有。[根据:与Drawhorn的通信]。沃尔什指出,辛顿拥有此材料是有正当理由的,如给奥克利做试验。无论如何,辛顿根本就不可能是唯一的骗子,因为他在1912-1914年间没有进入该地点的必要条件。”【124】

     

    这就是方舟子说“随后有人指出”的来源,因为豪尔本人并没有说“辛顿可能是在骗局被揭露后做的试验,想搞清楚道森是怎么造假的”这样的话。

     

    问题是,既然方舟子的言论并非杜撰,我凭什么说“事实与之完全相反”呢?

     

    原来,那篇《自然》杂志的文章,是根据英国国王学院(King's College)古生物学教授加德纳 Brian G. Gardiner, 1934-)在伦敦林奈学会上做的一篇“主席报告”。【125】而在2003年,加德纳又发表了一篇报告,其中针对豪尔关于锰的说法有这样一段申明:

     

    “与豪尔在其未发表的博士学位论文中的结果相反,我们的火焰吸收分析表明,所有测试的骨头中都存在锰。E592(右颅顶骨)252ppm E644 Barkham Mills头骨443ppm E615(棍棒)431ppm。”【126】

     

    同样,针对“辛顿样品中不含有石膏”的说法,加德纳说:

     

    尽管E615(棍棒)或箱子中的任何骨头中都不存在石膏,但在欣顿遗嘱执行人捐赠的盛放烟草的锡罐中的人类牙齿中却发现了石膏”【127

     

    问题是,当你面临两种截然不同的说法时,你是相信一个正牌大学的正牌教授在正牌学术刊物上发表的正牌学术论文呢,还是相信一个业余网络写手在一家倾向性极强的网站上发表的倾向性极强的网文?【128】显然,网络混子方舟子对此做出了本能般的选择。也就是说,方舟子在“科普”之时,不仅从来就不阅读原始论文,根据第一手的材料写作”,他还专门根据道听途说来与“原始论文”、“第一手的材料”唱反调。因此,他的“科普”——实质上是“伪科普”、“真科唬”——恰如他本人所说,“对读者的误导更严重,危害性更大。”【44


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  • 亦明_:二、一件铁证

    二、一件铁证

     

    不计标点符号,《“皮尔当人”骗局》全文刚满两千字,它们大部分抄自美国“科学作家”、“反伪斗士”迈克尔·谢尔默(Michael Shermer, 1954-)的一篇文章。原来,19968月,美国兰登书屋出版了一本关于皮尔当人丑闻的专著,题为《揭秘皮尔当:科学造假世纪大案及其破解》。【28】该书问世后,美国多家媒体都发表了评论,而为《洛杉矶时报》撰写书评之人就是谢尔默。【29】五年后,谢尔默将这篇仅有一千多单词的短评扩充了五倍,成为《科学的边界:理性与非理性的交合处》一书中的最后一章。【30】而就是这篇文章,在七年后成了方舟子科唬《皮尔当人骗局》的蓝本。

     

    说来好笑,谢尔默与方舟子颇有“缘分”:他1954年生于美国加利福尼亚州的洛杉矶市,距离方舟子目前藏身的巢穴还不到二百公里。谢尔默自幼就是一个原教旨福音派基督徒(fundamentalist Christian),在青年时代的愿望是成为一名牧师,只是在进入研究生院以后才放弃自己的信仰,变成了一名“无神论者”、“反伪斗士”。1992年,谢尔默在自家的车库里创办了一个“怀疑论者学会”(Skeptics Society),出版《怀疑论者》(Skeptic)杂志,并且从此成为职业“怀疑论者”。【31】所谓“怀疑论者”,实际上是美国科学警察CSICOP在七十年代为了掩盖自己的“科学纳粹”真面目而缝制的一块面罩,其目的就是以“怀疑”的名义来全盘、彻底否定他们眼中的“伪科学”。而谢尔默可以说是美国第二代“怀疑论者”中最成功的一位,也是他们的精神领袖——就在被方舟子偷袭之际,谢尔默宣称自己的“怀疑论者学会”有五万五千名成员,而媒体则说他“靠侦查胡说八道来谋生”。【32】从某种意义上说,方舟子当初放弃科学研究自谋生路,就是在效法谢尔默,想要通过“掐架”来建立一个“组织”,然后让这个“组织”来养活自己。确实,早在2001年,方舟子就开始向中国公众推介谢尔默【33】;直到2009年,他还在“新盗”谢尔默的文章。【34】只不过是,到了科唬“皮尔当骗局”之际,显然是因为惨遭“剥壳”,方舟子已经修改了自己的“人生设计”,转向要当“中国的阿西莫夫”——其实是要当“阿莫袭夫”(I’m a Thief)。【35】下面,我们就见识一下这位阿莫袭夫在《皮尔当人骗局》一文的开篇是怎么偷袭“美国著名怀疑论者”谢尔默的:

     

    方舟子1:“皮尔当人”是科学史上最著名的骗局之一,在近百年之后它的真相仍然没有完全搞清。【36】

    谢尔默:In the annals of evolutionary theories there is one enduring and unsolved mystery that continues to this day to compel writers to speculate in the best of "whodunnit" modes, and that is the Piltdown hoax.30

    【译文:在进化论的史册中,有一个持久未决的谜团,它直到今天还在迫使作家们卯足力气来推测“谁干的”,这就是皮尔特当骗局。】

     

    方舟子2:1912年2月15日,业余研究古生物学的英国律师查尔斯·道森交给著名古生物学家、大英自然历史博物馆地质部主管史密斯·伍德沃德一些颅骨碎片,据他说这是在1908年一些工人在皮尔当的砾石层挖掘时发现的,不幸被工人用镐敲碎了。

    谢尔默:On February 15, 1912, a British lawyer named Charles Dawson, who devoted every moment of his spare time to amateur archaeology, presented to the renowned Keeper of Geology of the British Museum of Natural History, Arthur Smith Woodward, several cranial fragments that appeared to be of an ancient hominid. Dawson told Smith Woodward that in 1908 workmen had unearthed the fragments from a gravel pit at Piltdown in Sussex, accidentally smashing them with their pick.

    【译文:1912年2月15日,一位名叫查尔斯·道森的英国律师——他将自己的全部业余时间都贡献给了考古——,向大英自然历史博物馆地质部主任、著名地质学家阿瑟·史密斯·伍德沃德展示了一些看似来自一个古代人类的颅骨碎片。道森告诉史密斯·伍德沃德,在1908年,这些碎片是工人们从苏塞克斯皮尔当的一个砾石坑中挖掘出来的,他们不小心用镐头把它们弄碎了

     

    方舟子3:1912年6月2日,伍德沃德、道森和日后成为著名古生物学家和神学家的法国耶稣会教士德日进一起到皮尔当继续挖掘。在现场道森发现了一个下颌骨和两颗臼齿,以及石器、动物化石等。

    谢尔默:On June 2, 1912, Smith Woodward, Dawson, and a youthful paleontologist and Jesuit priest named Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (later to become the world-famous author of The Phenomenon of Man, the book that attempted a scientific proof of the spiritual nature of humanity), went to the pit to continue the dig. There Dawson made another find-the lower jaw of the skull, including two molars, very ape-like in structure but indicating humanlike wear. Additional digging uncovered stone tools, chipped bones, and fossil animal teeth that placed the ancient hominid well back in evolutionary history.

    【译文:1912年6月2日,史密斯·伍德沃德、道森、以及一位名叫埃尔·泰哈德·德·夏尔丁的年轻的古生物学家及耶稣会神父(他后来成为世界名著《人类现象》一书的作者,该书试图提供人性精神本质的科学证明),去那个砾石坑继续挖掘。在那里,道森做出了另一个发现:颅骨的下颌,包括两个臼齿,结构上很像猿,但显示出类似人的磨损。继续挖掘又发现了石器工具,骨头碎裂和石化的动物牙齿,它们使那个原始人被定位于进化史的早期

     

    方舟子4:他们在12月18日伦敦地质学会的会议上公布了这个重大发现。

    谢尔默:On December 18, 1912, Dawson, under the auspices and endorsement of Smith Woodward, announced his great find at a meeting of the Geological Society of London.

    【译文:1912年12月18日,在史密斯·伍德沃德的主持和认可下,道森在伦敦地质学会的一次会议上宣布了他的重大发现

     

    方舟子5:随后又有了进一步的发现:1913年夏天,德日进在同一个砾石层发现了一颗犬齿化石,刚好可以和前面发现的下颌骨化石配套。

    谢尔默:That summer Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, with a background in paleontology and completing his theological training at a Jesuit seminary, conveniently (some say suspiciously) near Piltdown, found an apelike lower canine tooth, but worn in a very humanlike fashion.

    【译文:那个夏天,皮埃尔·泰哈德·德·夏尔丁,依据其古生物学背景以及在皮特当附近的耶稣会神学院继续其神学训练的机会,很方便地(有人说很可疑地)发现了一颗下犬齿,它看上去像是猿类,但其磨损方式却非常像人类

     

    方舟子6:1914年,工人在同一个地方发现一根象牙,似乎被人为加工当棍棒来用。

    谢尔默:The following summer, as the great nations of Europe cascaded toward their destiny of total war, Dawson added to the trove a fossilized thigh bone from an elephant and what appeared to be a stone tool, and a fairly advanced one at that.

    【译文:第二年夏天,随着欧洲大国先后朝着全面战争的命运狂奔,道森在他的宝藏之中加入了大象的石化大腿骨和一个貌似石器的工具,并且相当先进。】

     

    方舟子7:1915年,道森在距离原发现点两英里处,发现了两块颅骨碎片,属于另一个皮尔当人。

    谢尔默:In 1915, at another pit two miles from Piltdown, Dawson uncovered two more hominid skull pieces along with another tooth similar to the previous finds.

    【译文:1915年,道森在距辟尔唐两英里处的另一个砾石坑中发现了另外两个原始的头骨碎片以及与先前发现类似的另一颗牙齿

     

    方舟子8:此后的40年间,皮尔当人都被认为是更新世时期的化石,距今大约50万年,这是根据与皮尔当人一起出土的古生物化石认定的。

    谢尔默:Now there could be no doubt as to both the authenticity and the significance of the fossil collection, and for four decades the finds went largely unchallenged.

    【译文:至此,对这些化石收藏的真实性和意义都已毫无疑问,而在过去的40年中,这些发现基本上没有受到挑战

     

    应该承认,方、谢二人叙述的是同一个历史事件,因此,他们二人的文章在文字和结构上相似甚至相同在所难免——也就是说,上述比较本身并不能构成方舟子抄袭谢尔默的证据,除非方舟子留下了他所说的“抄袭的铁证”:

     

    “在美国法庭上,抄袭者没有意识到的‘技术性错误’乃是抄袭的铁证。”【37】

     

    而方舟子的不幸就在于,他在抄袭谢尔默之时,确实没有意识到谢尔默犯下了一个“技术性错误”,所以他把这个错误也一股脑地抄了过来。

     

    原来,道森首次向伍德沃德透露自己手中有皮尔当人头骨碎片,是在1912214日的一封信中。尽管伍德沃德确实在次日就收到了那封信,但是,在这个世界上,没有任何一个人知道他到底是在哪一天看到那些化石的。这是牛津大学出版社1990年出版的《皮尔当档案》(The Piltdown Papers)一书中的两段话:

     

    “从尚存的书信中,我们无从知晓伍德沃德第一次看到颅骨碎片是在何时,尽管从信件1.2.41.2.5来判断,他迟至5月下旬才得以见到(参见信件1.2.8。”【38

     

    “这表明伍德沃德当时并不掌握皮尔当人颅骨碎片。实际上,伍德沃德似乎直到5月24日才看到这些遗骸。(参见信件1.2.8)。”【39】

     

    所谓的“信件1.2.8”,是指道森在1912523日写给伍德沃德的一封信,其中说道:

     

    “明天(星期五)的某个时间,大概是午餐后,我将把一块头骨和一些同时在那个砾石矿床中或其邻近发现的遗物带来。”【40】

     

    也就是根据这样的证据,人们才推测伍德沃德见到那几块颅骨最早不会早于1912524日。【41

     

    从另一方面讲,尽管谢尔默为自己的文章开列了一长串书单,但在这些文献之中根本就找不到道森是在1912215日这一天把颅骨碎片“交给伍德沃德的任何根据。如上所述,谢尔默的文章在最初是一篇书评,而就在他评论的那本书中,明明写着1912215日是伍德沃德收到道森来信的日期:

     

    “那是1912年2月15日,星期二,大英博物馆地质部主任有理由将这一天牢牢记住。在他的办公桌上,已经摆放着当天的第一批信件,他开始浏览信封,偶尔打开并阅读。当他看到自刘易斯市苏塞克斯镇的一封取消约会的信件时,他轻易地认出了地址栏中那小而有力的笔迹。它来自他的朋友查尔斯·道森,一名专业律师,同时是一名业余地质学家和小有名气的古董收藏家。”【42】

     

    不仅如此,这本书还明确地说,伍德沃德是在当年523日才第一次看到道森的化石的:

     

    “5月,当道森因公出而前往伦敦时,伍德沃德才对那个发现进行了首次观察。道森在5月23日下午到博物馆的办公室中拜访他的朋友时,在办公桌上打开了一个小包裹。‘与海德堡人相比,这个如何?’他兴奋地大声喊道”【43】

     

    天知道这位美国反伪帮二代帮主,一个拥有十年“博龄”的科学史博士,当时是怎么搞的,竟然大模大样地制造出了这么一个世界上独一无二的史实错误,并且还让它逃过了《洛杉矶时报》和牛津大学出版社编辑的“编审”——结果铸成了中国反伪帮二代帮主方舟子抄袭美国反伪帮二代帮主谢尔默的“铁证”。

     


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  • 亦明_:一、一块心病

    一、一块心病

     

    众所周知,进化论虽然可以解释几乎所有的生物现象——所以杜布赞斯基才会说“如果没有进化论,生物学就是一团乱麻”这样的话【8】——,但它的短板却是缺乏详尽的实物证据,尤其是在从猿到人的进化链条中,缺乏一个(或几个)至为关键的环节,即介于人、猿之间的生物化石。2017年,BBC网站上一篇文章的标题就是我们至今还没有找到我们与猿之间的那个丢失的环节9】。可是,早在1912年年底,英国人道森(Charles Dawson, 1864-1916)和伍德沃德(Arthur Smith Woodward, 1864-1944)却宣布他们发现了具有人、猿双重特征的皮尔当人“Piltdown Man”,又译辟尔唐人皮尔唐人,亦名曙人、“晓人”),这相当于把那个丢失的环节”找到了。也就是因为如此,英国《曼彻斯特卫报》在这个发现公布之前一个月就以“最早的人类”、“几百万年前的头骨”为题大肆炒作此事【10】;连《自然》杂志都坐不住了,它在这个发现正式公布之前两周就为之发布预告【11】、在这个发现公布的第二天就把它认证为英国迄今此类研究中的最重大发现。12】据估计,在被揭露之前,介绍皮尔当人的文章总共达数百篇之多,超过了介绍其他人类化石文章数量的总和。【13】显然是这样缘故,这个骗局的彻底败露才会成为方斗犬的一块心病,颇像是阿Q头上的那朵癞疮疤。19996月,显然是要报五年前被其腰斩之仇,方舟子先是将《华夏文摘》发表的一篇文章打成法轮功信徒小昱所写的文章,然后开始对那篇文章狂轰滥炸。而针对其中所说的历史上曾经有人提供过一些假证据,但骗局通常很快就被戳穿这句话,方舟子借题发挥道:

     

    “这基本上也是一个谎言。到目前为止只发现一个(不是一些)人科化石的骗局,即‘辟尔唐人’,1911年在英国发现。自被发现之日起,就在生物学界引起很大的争论,基本上,英国的学者认为它是真的,而美国、法国、意大利的生物学家则认为其颅骨和下颔骨不属于同一个个体,是两具不同的标本被误混在了一起(他们倒没想到会是伪造的)。这些反对者都是进化论者(当时进化论已被生物学界所一致接受),他们怀疑这具标本的真实性的理由恰恰是基于进化论的:这具标本与其他的猿人标本没法联系上,简直就是一个怪物。以后随着越来越多的猿人标本被发现,‘辟尔唐人’也就越来越显得古怪,连英国学者也开始怀疑它的真实性,所以在五十年代同位素测定法一被发明,马上就被用来测定其真伪,被证明是伪造的”【14】

     

    一年后,因为《北京晨报》在一篇介绍美国《国家地理杂志》公布的一项重大发现竟是赝品的文章中也提到“‘皮尔当人事件,方舟子再次摆出“中国达尔文头号斗犬”的架势扳着指头数落道:

     

    “可见,这个骗局是由中国的化石走私分子制造,蒙骗了业余科学家,又进而蒙骗了科普杂志,并且很快就被戳穿了,美国科学界从未受其蒙骗。然而,《北京晨报》的报道却将主要矛头指向美国科学界,一再嘲笑其‘走眼’和偏见,甚至联想到本世纪20年代人类学研究中的重大丑闻‘辟尔唐人’事件(并错误地将‘辟尔唐人’伪造者从英国人栽到法国学者头上),断言‘坚信鸟是从恐龙进化来的倡导者和信仰者,为了论证自己的假说,需要这样一个物种。’”【15】

     

    也就是因为知道皮尔当人骗局是方舟子的心病,所以方舟护法杜磊(网名“柯南”、“三思柯南”)才会把自己的处女作献给这个题目,在2001年撰写了《真相永远只有一个·辟尔唐人的骗局》——它也是杜磊第一次被方舟子“新盗”。【16】到了2008年,因为要冒充“科学史专家”,方舟子本人也撰写了一篇相同内容的文章,题为《皮尔当人骗局——科学史上著名公案(9)》,发表在623日的《经济观察报》上。【17】而就像他的绝大多数科唬文章一样,这篇文章不仅是他抄来的,不仅其中充满了无知和谬误,而且还被他拿来反复骗取稿费:该文问世不到半年,就被方舟子以《皮尔当人骗局》为题送到被其信徒视为“著名的伪科学杂志”【18】的《飞碟探索》上原封不动地重新发表。【19】而这家杂志在一年前刚刚发表过内容相同、但比方文更为翔实的文章。【20】由此可知,“伪科学杂志”之所以肯为“反伪斗士”提供版面,就是在通过这种方式来向他支付保护费,以便自己可以尽情宣传伪科学而不受反伪帮的捣乱、骚扰、敲诈、勒索;而方舟子的所谓“反伪”,和他冒充诗人、冒充明史专家一样,都是他求名谋利的途径,即鲁迅所说的“噉饭之道”。

     

    事实是,所谓的“皮尔当人骗局不仅在西方世界被炒了半个多世纪,——这个骗局在欧美炒得是那么热,连与人类学、古生物学毫不沾边的著名美籍华裔学者余英时在撰写一篇与人类学、古生物学毫不沾边的文章中,都要把它当作“西方辨伪学上的一个最新的案例”给予详细介绍【21】——;即使是在中国大陆,相关文章也俯拾皆是:在方舟子之前,介绍该骗局的文章数以百计。例如,仅在1954年,《光明日报》、《科学通报》等报刊就发表了至少三篇相关文章【22】;而北京猿人头骨的发现者裴文中更是在一本书中,专门讲解了“英国所谓‘曙人’的新研究”。【23

    进入六十年代,中华书局出版的《辞海(试行本)》中有《辟尔唐人(Piltdown Man)》词条,其内容如下:

     

    “据英国考古学家陶逊(Charles Dawson)说是1911年在英国南部苏塞克郡(Sussex)辟尔唐(Piltdown)地方发现的。系头骨一具。英国地质学家伍德华(Arthur Smith Woodward, 1864—1944)认为是早期原始人类的化石,称为曙人(Eoanthropus dawsoni)。颅骨特征:前额宽而平,眉嵴微弱,与近代人接近,但下颌骨形态与黑猩猩相似;为多年来争论的问题。近来采用氮、氟测定法证明颅骨属于新人,下颌骨为黑猩猩,并发现齿部有人工磨凿和染色痕迹,显然是陶逊有意伪造的。”【24

     

    实际上,即使是在出版业极为萧条清冷的文革期间,“辟尔唐人骗局”仍然保持一定的热度。例如,当时屈指可数的科普刊物之一《化石》杂志就曾发表文章,把该丑闻说成是资产阶级的伪科学。【25】而在1976年出版的《十万个为什么》中,专门有一篇文章详细地回答了“为什么说曙人事件是个骗局这个问题。【26】进入“改革开放”年代之后,揭露该骗局的文章可以说是遍地开花,仅古人类学家吴汝康院士就在1996-1997连续两年发表相关文章,详尽地介绍了这一骗局的来龙去脉。【27

     

    所以说,方舟子的所谓科普,充其量也不过就是把别人蒸出来的馍咀嚼后当作自己亲手烹制的、富含云霄假烟风味的营养餐高声叫卖。其实,如果方舟子肯于老老实实地当一个“科学知识的二道贩子”的话,他的“营养餐”或许真的会含有些许营养成分;可惜的是,因为他总要自作聪明,非要在盗卖赃品之际夹带私货,结果导致“方氏营养餐”不仅是臭气熏天的“科学赃物”,而且还是货真价实的“科学毒药”——《皮尔当人骗局》一文就是最典型的例子之一。

     

    image.png

    一枕黄粱辟尔唐

    1912年底,英国媒体一片欢腾,庆祝大英帝国是现代人类的发祥地。41年后,这一骗局被一举揭穿。上图左侧是19121228日英国《伦敦新闻画报》的首页,介绍英国的这一重大发现;右侧是该画报19531128日的第43页,报道这个闻名世界的骗局被戳穿(中间彩色插图为该期的首页)。

     


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